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THE 



FIRST BOOK OF BOTANY. 



DESIGNED TO CTJLTITATE 



THE OBSERYING POWERS OF CHILDREN. 



.... Not that more is taught at an early age, but less ; that 
time is taken ; that the wall is not run up in haste ; that the bricks 
are set on carefully, and the mortar allowed time to dry. 

Lord Stanley. 



BY 

ELIZA il YOUMANS. 



NEW YORK: 
D. APPLETOIsr AITD OOMPAN'Y, 

90, 92 & 94 GRAND STREET. 

1870. 



Entbeed according to Act of Congress, In the yearl870, by 
D. APPLETON AND COMPANY, 

In the Clerk's Office of the District Court of the United States for the 
Southern District of New York. 



^" 



PEEFACE. 



This little book has a twofold claim upon those 
concerned in the work of education. 

In the first place, it introduces the beginner to 
the study of Botany in the only way it can be prop- 
erly done — by the direct observation of vegetable 
forms. The pupil is told very little, and from the 
beginning, throughout, he is sent to the plant to get 
his knowledge of the plant. The book is designed 
to help him in this work, never to supersede it. In- 
stead of memorizing the statements of others, he 
brings report of the living reality as he sees it ; 
it is the things themselves that are to be exam- 
ined, questioned, and understood. The true basis 
of a knowledge of Botany is that familiarity with 
the actual characters of plants, which can only be 
obtained by direct and habitual inspection of them. 
The beginner should therefore commence with the 
actual specimens, and learn to distinguish those ex- 
ternal characters which lie open to observation ; the 
knowledge of which leads naturally to that arrange- 
ment by related attributes which constitutes classifi- 
cation. 



PREFACE. 



But the plan of the work claims the attention 
of those interested in education, on other and more 
important grounds. Yaluable as may be a knowl- 
edge of the vegetable kingdom, I should hardly have 
undertaken to make a school-book with reference to 
this object alone. It is not what Botany is, con- 
sidered in itself, but what it is capable of doing for 
the minds of those who pursue it aright, that gives it 
its highest interest to the educator ; and it has been to 
secure certain important results in mental cultivation 
which are but imperfectly provided for in our system 
of popular education, that has led to the preparation 
of this series of exercises. It is because Botany, be- 
yond all other subjects, is suited to maintain the 
mind in direct intercourse with the objects and order 
of Nature, and to train the observing powers and 
the mental operations they involve, in a systematic 
way, that I have undertaken to put its rudiments into 
such a shape that this desirable work can be rightly 
commenced. 

A preface is not the appropriate place to deal 
with so large a subject as is here touched upon, 
and which involves nothing less than the true men- 
tal philosophy of education; but so important is 
the question, in its practical bearings, that I have 
entered into a somewhat full discussion of it at the 
close of the volume, and would earnestly urge not 
only parents and teachers, but the responsible di- 



PREFACE. O 

rectors of public education, to weigh carefully the 
considerations there presented. 

It is needful here to state that the method of in- 
struction developed in these pages is no mere educa- 
tional novelty ; it has been tested, and its fitness for 
the end proposed has been shovi^n in practice. The 
schedule feature which is here fully brought out, and 
which is its leading peculiarity as a mode of study, 
was devised and successfully used by Prof. J. S. 
Henslow, of Cambridge, England. My attention 
was first drawn to it as I was looking about in the 
educational department of the South Kensington 
Museum, in London. In a show-case of botanical 
specimens, I noticed some slates covered with child- 
ish handwriting, which proved to be illustrations of 
a method of teaching Botany to the young. They 
were furnished by Prof. Henslow for the Interna- 
tional Exhibition of 1851. He died without pub- 
lishing his method, but not without having subjected 
it to thorough practical trial. He had gathered 
together a class of poor country children, in the 
parish where he officiated as clergyman, and taught 
them Botany by a plan similar to the present, though 
less simplified. The results of this experiment have 
been given to the public by Dr. J. D. Hooker, Su- 
perintendent of the Botanical Gardens at Kew, who 
was summoned to give evidence upon the subject 
before a Parliamentary Commission on Education. 



b PREFACE. 

The following interesting passages from his testi- 
mony will give an idea of Prof. Hen slew's method 
of proceeding and its results : 

Question. Have you ever turned your attention at all to the 
possibility of teaching Botany to boys in classes at school ? 

Answer, I have thought that it might be done very easily ; 
that this deficiency might be easily remedied. 

Q. What are your ideas on the subject ? 

A. My own ideas are chiefly drawn from the experience of 
my father-in-law, the late Prof. Henslow, Professor of Botany 
at Cambridge. He introduced Botany into one of the lowest 
possible class of schools — that of village laborers' children in 
a remote part of Suffolk. 

Q, Perhaps you will have the goodness to tell us the sys- 
tem he pursued ? 

A. It was an entirely voluntary system. He offered to en- 
roll the school children in a class to be taught Botany once a 
week. The number of children in the class was limited, I 
think, to forty-two. As his parish contained only one thou- 
sand inhabitants, there never were, I suppose, the fiill forty-two 
children in the class ; their ages varied from about eight years 
old to about fourteen or fifteen. The class mostly consisted 
of girls. ... He required that, before they were enrolled in 
the class, they should be able to spell a few elementary botani- 
cal terms, including some of the most difficult to spell, and 
those that were the most essential to begin with. Those who 
brought proof that they could do this were put into the third 
class ; then they were taught once a week, by himself generally, 
for an hour or an hour and a half, sometimes for two hours 
(for they were exceedingly fond of it). 

Q, Did he use to take them out in the country, or was it 
simply lessons in the school ? 

A. He left them to collect for themselves ; but he visited 
his parish daily, when the children used to come up to him, 
and bring the plants they had collected ; so that the lessons 
went on all the week round. There was only one day in the 



PREFACE. 7 

week on which definite instruction was given to the class ; but 
on Sunday afternoon he used to allow the senior class, and 
those who got marks at the examinations, to attend at his 
house. . . . 

Q. Did he find any difficulty in teaching this subject in 
class ? 

A. None whatever ; less than he would have had in dealing 
with almost any other subject. 

§. Do you know in what way he taught it ? did he illus- 
trate it ? 

A. Invariably ; he made it practical. He made it an ob- 
jective study. The children were taught to know the plants, 
and to pull them to pieces ; to give their proper names to the 
parts ; to indicate the relations of the parts to one another ; 
and to find out the relation of one plant to another by the 
knowledge thus obtained. 

Q, They were children, you say, generally from eight to 
twelve ? 

A. Yes, and up to fourteen. 

Q. And they learned it readily ? 

A, Eeadily and voluntarily, entirely. 

Q. And were interested in it ? 

A, Extremely interested in it. They were exceedingly fond 
of it. 

Q, Do you happen to know whether Prof. Henslow thought 
that the study of Botany developed the faculties of the mind 
— ^that it taught these children to think ? and do you know 
whether he perceived any improvement in their mental facul- 
ties from that ? 

A, Yes ; he used to think it was the most important agent 
that could be employed for cultivating their faculties of obser- 
vation, and for strengthening their reasoniDg powers. 

Q. He really thought that he had arrived at a practical re- 
sult ? 

A, Undoubtedly; and so did every one who visited the 
school or the parish ? 

Q. They were children of quite the lower class ? 

A, The laboring agricultural class. 



8 PEEFACE. 

Q, And in other branches receiving the most elementary 
instruction ? 

A, Yes. 

Q, And Prof. Henslow thought that their minds were more 
developed ; that they were become more reasoning beings, from 
having this study superadded to the others ? 

A, Most decidedly. It was also the opinion of some of the 
inspectors of schools, who came to visit him, that such chil- 
dren were in general more intelligent than those of other 
parishes ; and they attribute the difference to their observant 
and reasoning faculties being thus developed. . . . 

Q. So that the intellectual success of this objective study 
was beyond question ? 

A, Beyond question. ... In conducting the examinations 
of medical men for the army, which I have now conducted for 
several years, and those for the East-India Company's Service, 
which I have conducted for, I think, seven years, the questions 
which I am in the habit of putting, and which are not an- 
swered by the majority of the candidates, are what would have 
been answered by the children in Prof. Henslow's village- 
school. I believe the chief reason to be, that these students' 
observing faculties, as children, had never been trained — such 
faculties having lain dormant with those who naturally pos- 
sessed them in a high degree ; and having never been de- 
veloped, by training, in those who possessed them in a low 
degree. In most medical schools, the whole sum and sub- 
stance of botanical science is crammed into a few weeks of lec- 
tures, and the men leave the class without having acquired an 
accurate knowledge of the merest elements of the science. , . . 

The printed form or schedule contrived by Prof. 
Henslow, and used in these classes, applied only to 
the flower, the most complex part of the plant, and 
the attention of children was directed by it chiefly to 
those features upon which orders depend in classifica- 
tion. But, instead of confining its use to the study 



PREFACE. 9 

of a special part of plant-structure, it seamed to me 
to applj equally to the whole course of descriptive 
Botany, and to be capable of becoming* a most 
efficient instrument of res-ular observational train- 
ing. I accordingly prepared a simplified series of 
exercises on this plan, and used them to guide some 
little children in studying the plants of the neigh- 
borhood; and, had this experiment not been re- 
garded, by those who witnessed it, as a success, the 
book embodying these exercises would not now ap- 
pear. 

As the plan of teaching here adopted is to tell the 
child as little as possible, thereby limiting the text to 
bare definitions, to be employed in connection with 
the pictures, it happened that there was not suffi- 
cient matter to fill up the vacancies between the 
numerous cuts. But, rather than deviate from this 
plan, I preferred to occupy the spaces with hints 
to teachers, which will account for the brief notes 
interspersed through the book. 

Should this First Book prove acceptable, a second 
may follow it upon a similar plan, for the use of those 
who wish to go on with the subject by a similar 
method. 

Although designed for beginners, and presenting 
only the barest rudiments of the subject, yet the 
preparation of this little book for the end I had in 
view, and under the test of practical trial, has not 



10 PREFACE. 

been a trifling task; but, if only a small number of 
the young shall be led by it to a familiar acquaint- 
ance with their interesting little " neighbors by the 
wayside," and shall thereby learn to look with their 
own eyes, and to think with their own minds, I shall 
be well repaid for the solicitude it has cost. 

I am much indebted to my brother, E. L. You- 
mans, for his kind assistance in taking it through 
the press, and especially in the preparation of the 
argument on the Educational Claims of Botany, at 
the close of the volume. 

New York, February^ 1870. 



SUGGESTIONS TO TEACHERS. 

The method to be pursued by the aid of this book is the 
following : The child, whether at home or at school, first of 
all collects some specimens of plants — almost any will answer 
the purpose in commencing. These consist of organs, each 
of which is made up of different parts, and these vary in form 
and structure continually in dijfferent species. The object of 
the learner is to find out these parts or characters, and to 
learn their names, so as to be able to describe them. 

The beginner, of course, must start with the simplest char- 
acters. Turning to the first exercises, for example, he finds 
the parts of leaves represented by pictures accompanied by 
the names applied to them. Guided by these, he refers to his 
specimens, and find^ the real tilings which the pictures and the 
words represent. When a few characters are fixed in the mind 
by two or three exercises, he will commence the practice of 
noting down what he observes. For this purpose a form, or 
schedule^ is used, containing questions which indicate what he 
is to search for. Models of these schedules, filled out, are 
given in the successive exercises : the pupil will make them 
for himself with pencil and paper.* He now carefully observes 
his specimen, and writes down the characters it possesses, with 
which he has thus far become acquainted. Having done this, 
he pins the specimen to the paper describing it, and brings it 
to the teacher as the report of his observation and judgment 
in the case. 

* I have thought it desirable also to present the whole set, at the end of 
the volume, with the answers omitted, to illustrate at a glance the scope of 
this first series of observations. As the pupil is to be constantly engaged hi 
schedule 'practice^ and as the schedules are not to be preserved, the cheapest 
kind of paper will answer, and it can be of course used on both sides. Slates 
will do just as well ; but then the description must be numbered, and a corre- 
sponding number attached to the specimen, so that they can be compared by 
the teacher. 



12 SUGGESTIONS TO TEACHERS. 

This operation is constantly repeated upon varying forms, 
and slowly extended by the addition of new characters. He 
thus goes on discovering new parts and acquiring their names 
— noting the variations of these parts and the names of their 
variations. The schedules guide him forward in the right 
direction, and hold him steadily to the essential work of ex- 
ercising his faculties upon the living objects before him. In 
every firesh collection of plants, new parts and new relations 
will solicit the attention, and will have to be observed, com- 
pared, and recorded. Particular kinds of plants, let it be 
remembered, are not described in the book — they are not even 
named; the object is, by constant practice and repetition, to 
train the pupil to find out the characters of any that come 
in his way, and make his own descriptions. 

An acquaintance with Botany, although of course de- 
sirable, is not indispensable in using these exercises. Any 
teacher or parent lolio is icilling to take the necessary pains can 
conduct the children through them without difficulty ; and if 
they will loecomefellow-studenfs with them all the better. The 
child is not so much to be taught^ as to instruct himself. The 
very essence of the plan is, that he is to make his own icay^ 
and rely on nobody else ; it is intended for self- development. 
Mistakes will, of course, be made ; but the whole method is 
self -correcting^ and the pupil, as he goes forward, will be con- 
stantly rectifying his past errors. The object is less to get 
perfect results at first than to get the pupil's opinion upon the 
basis of his own observations. 

Children can begin to study plants successfully by this 
method at six or seven years of age, or as soon as they can 
write. But close observations should not be required from 
young beginners, nor the exercises be prolonged to weariness. 
The transition from the unconscious and spontaneous observa- 
tions of children to conscious observation with a definite pur- 
pose should be gradual, beginning and continuing for some 
time with the easiest exercises upon the most simple and obvi- 
ous characters. 



CONTENTS. 



PAOK 

Chapter L— THE LEAF 15 

Ex. 1. The Parts of a Leaf 16 

2. The Parts of a Grass-Leaf. 17 

3. Yenation 18 

4. The Framework and its Parts 19 

5. Feather-veined and Palmate-veined Leaves 22 

6. Margins 24 

1. Bases 28 

8. Apexes 31 

9. Formsof Lobes 33 

10. Forms of Sinuses 35 

11. Kinds of Leaves 37 

12. Shapes of Leaves 39 

13. Petioles, Surfaces, and Colors 45 

14. Simple and Compound Leaves 47 

15. Parts of Compound Leaves 49 

16. Pinnate and Digitate Leaves 51 

17. Varieties of Pinnate Leaves 52 

18. Yarieties of Digitate Leaves 54 

19. Forms of Stipules 57 

20. Examples of Description 59 

Chap. IL— THE STEM 60 

Ex. 21. Parts of the Stem, and Leaf Axil 60 

22. Appendages of the Stem 62 

23. Position of Leaves 64 

24. Arrangement of Leaves on the Stem 66 

25. Shapes of Stems 69 

26. Attitude of Stems 71 

27. Color, Surface, Size, Structure 74 



14 CONTENTS. 



I 



PAGB 



Chap. III.— THE INFLORESCENCE 16 

Ex. 28. Solitary and Clustered Inflorescence 76 

29. Parts of the Inflorescence IS 

30. Attitude of Inflorescence 80 

31. Solitary TeiToinal and Axial Inflorescence 82 

32. Clustered Axial and Terminal Inflorescence , . 84 

33. Definite and Indefinite Inflorescence 87 

84. Varieties of Inflorescence 90 

Chap. IY.— THE FLOWER 96 

Ex. 35. Parts of the Flower 96 

36. Parts of the Calyx 97 

37. Parts of the CoroUa 98 

38. Kinds of Calyx 99 

39. Kinds of Corolla and Perianth 100 

40. Regular and Irregular Corollas and Perianths 101 

41. Parts of Stamens 103 

42. Parts of the Pistil 105 

43. Parts of the Ovary 105 

44. Parts of the Petals 107 

45. Kinds of Regular Polypetalous Corollas 108 

46. Kinds of Irregular Polypetalous CoroUa 109 

47. Parts of a Gamopetalous CoroUa 112 

48. Kinds of Regular Gamopetalous Corollas 113 

49. Irregular Gamopetalous CoroUas. 114 

50. Crowns, Spurs, and Nectaries 118 

Chap. Y.— THE ROOT 120 

Ex. 51. Tap-Roots and Fibrous Roots 120 

52. Kinds of Tap-Root 121 

53. Kinds of Fibrous Roots 122 

Examples in Plant Description 124 

Leaf Schedules 143 

Stem Schedules 148 

Inflorescence Schedules * 151 

Flower Schedules , 154 

The Educational Claims of Botany 158 



I 




CHAPTEE I. — THE LEAF. 



The pupil will see from the picture what is to be done first, 
and how we are to proceed in commencing the study of plants. 
Having collected some specimens, let us begin with the leaf. On 
these printed leaves there is a language which children have 
already learned ; there is also a language written by Nature on 
the leaves that grow : we will now learn to read that. 



16 



THE FIRST BOOK OF BOTANY. 



EXERCISE I. 

The jParts of a Leaf* 

The beginner will gather some leaves, and find 
out the names of their parts by comparing them with 
the picture. 

Fig. 1. 



Petiole. 




Blade. 



Stipules. 



Blade. — The flattened green part of the leaf. 
Pet^iole. — The leaf-stem. 

Stipules. — Small bodies at the base of the petiole, 
that look more or less like leaves. 



Notes poe Teachees. — The exercises begin with leaves, be- 
cause they are the simplest and the most common parts of 
plants, and because they present the greatest variety of formSj 
and are most easily procured. The aim of the first exercise is 
to teach the parts of a leaf and their names. It is likely that 
the first gathering of leaves will be done carelessly, and that, 



THE LEAF. 



17 



EXERCISE II. 

The Parts of a Grass-Leaf. 

Gather a handful of grass and see if you can find 
the parts shown in Fig. 2. 

Fig. 2. 



Sheath. 



Li^le. ....M 



Sheath. 




Blade. 



Blade. — The flattened upper part of the leaf. 
Sheath. — A leaf-stem surrounding the stalk. 
Lia^uLE. — The scale-like stipule often seen be- 
tween the sheath and the blade. 

when compared with Fig. 1, the specimens will he found lacking 
in some of the parts there seen. This will make it necessary to 
repeat the exercise. At the second trial the leaves will be pulled 
with more care, and the pupil will seek for those having all the 
parts seen in the picture. Let him point out the parts in each 
of his specimens, and give them their names, repeating the pro- 
cess till he can do it without hesitation or mistake. 



18 THE FIRST BOOK OF BOTANY. 

EXERCISE III. 
Venation. 

Vena'tion. — The lines seen upon the leaf-blade 
are called its venation. 

Hold up a leaf between your eye and the light, 
and, if you see a net-work of lines, like Fig. 3, it is a 
net-veined leaf; but, if you see no net- work, as in 
Kg. 4, it is a parallel- veined leaf. 



Fig. 3. 



Fig. 4. 




A Net-veined Leaf. 




A Parallel-veined Leaf. 



Looking and Observing. — There are plenty of 
boys and girls who have always lived in a garden, 
and yet, if you asked them the difference between a 
potato-leaf and a bean-leaf, they could not tell you. 
They have looked at potato-plants and bean-plants 
often enough, but they have never observed them. 



THE LEAF. 



19 



When we observe a tiling, we not only look at it, 
but, as we look, we tliink particnlarly about it. For 
instance, after these exercises, when you look at a 
leaf, you will think, what parts has it ? and, is it net- 
veined or not ? You will observe these particulars 
about it. 

The Schedule. — That you may be sure to look 
at plants with care, and that your teacher may see 
what you think about them, little diagrams, called 
schedules, are used, in which you are to write down 
what you observe. They have questions written 
upon them, which you are to answer by studying the 
plants themselves. 

Fig. 5. 




Schedule Fikst, describing Fig. 5. 



Parts ? 


^/aJe, 'Mico/e, 6^^c/,u/eX 


Venation ? 


GAel^t^ecnea. 



N'oTE. — It will be observed that the attention of the child 
is restricted to one additional point at each exercise. This 
will prevent the confusion of ideas Avhich is liable to arise 
when several new features of plant-structure are presented to 
the mind at the same time. 



20 THE FIRST BOOK OF BOTANY. 

Here is such a schedule about Fig. 5. On the 
left, two words are printed with interrogation-points, 
which show that they are questions. The word 
Parts ? means, what parts has this leaf ? The word 
Venation ? means, what is its venation ? The an- 
swers to these questions are found by looking at the 
picture, and they are then written in the schedule as 
you see. 

Take a sheet of ruled paper, and make a vertical 
pencil-mark an inch or two from the left edge ; at 
the left of this mark write the questions. Parts ? 
Venation ? Now examine a real leaf, and opposite 
the question, Parts? write what parts you find. 
Look again at its venation, and write the answer 
to this question also. Pin each leaf upon the paper 
that describes it, and hand the collection to the 
teacher, to see if you have observed correctly. 



EXEECISE TV. 

The Framework and its Parts, 

The lines upon the blade of a leaf, shown in Fig. 
6, are made by its framework. The spaces between 

Note. — A word of caution is here necessary against mis- 
taking the purpose of this book for that of common botanies. 
The aim of ordinary botanical teaching is simply to impart to 
pupils a knowledge of plants. In our schools the ambition of 
both teacher and pupil is to get something done as quickly as 
possible that will show proficiency. Hence the early attempts 
at the classification of plants and the consequent precipitation 



THE LEAF. 



21 



these lines, which are darkened in Fig. 7, are, in the 
living leaf, filled with green matter. 



Fig. 6. 




Fig. 7. 




You know the names of 
the parts of a leaf^ and the 
two following pictures will 
show you what to call the 
different parts of the frame- 
worTc, 

Ribs. — The stoutest 
pieces of the framework that 
begin at the petiole and 
reach quite across the blade, 
are called ribs. When there 
is but one, as in Fig. 8, it is 
called a midrib. 



Fig. 8. 




Veinlets. 



. Vein. 



-Midrib. 



of the pupil into the complexities of the subject before the 
simpler portions have been sufficiently mastered. 

1^0 w, the aim of this book is carefully to guard against such 
a result. These first observations are made without reference 
to those combinations of characters by which plants are identi- 
fied as belonging to a particular order, genus, or species. One 
of our aims is to learn the elementary facts so thoroughly and 



22 THE FIRST BOOK OF BOTANY. 

Fig. 9. 






Vein. 
Rib. 

..- VeinletB. 



Yeins. — The branches of the ribs are called vems. 
Yein^lets. — The branches of the veins are called 
veinlets. 



EXERCISE y. 

Feather -veined and JPahnate-veined Leaves. 

If yon have carefnlly compared a few living leaves 
with Figs. 8 and 9, yon know the difference between 
ribs and veins. 

familiarly that we may be prepared to go forward and use them 
afterward. We first study the parts of plants one after another, 
on account of what they offer directly to observation. When 
the characters of leaves, stems, flowers, etc., have become 
familiar, their relations to each other in different plants, which 
are usually thrust upon the attention at the outset of study, 
will come to be seen with little effort. This spontaneous action 
will be sure to occur as soon as the pupil is prepared for it. 
All that need be done, therefore, is to keep the elements of 
the subject before the mind, and to acquire the use of accurate 



THE LEAF. 



23 



Fig. 10. 



Fig. 11. 






jtSTow, when a leaf lias but one rib — a 
midrib — which gives off veins right and 
left, like Fig. 10, making it look some- 
thing like a feather, it is called a feather- 
veined leaf; and when several ribs pass 

across the blade 
in a spreading 
fashion, as in 
Fig. 11, the 
leaf is said to 
be palmate- 
veined. Who- 
ever named it 
so, mnst have 
thought the ribs 
looked like the 
spread-out fingers branching off from the palm of 
the hand. 

If a leaf is net- veined, it will be in one of these 
two fashions. It will be either feather-veined or 
palmate-veined. In answering the question Vena- 
tion ? in your schedule, you may now state whether 
the leaf in hand is feather- veined or palmate-veined. 

You may sometimes be troubled to decide whether 
a leaf is feather-veined or palmate-veined. Large 
veins near the base sometimes look very much like 
rihs. Compare your leaf carefully with the pictures 
and definitions, and write your opinion in the sched- 
ule. You may make mistakes at first, but further 
observation will enable you to correct them. 

terms in description, without troubling ourselves about the 
higher growths of the science. 



24 THE FmST BOOK OF BOTANY. 

EXERCISE YI. 

Margins, 

Margest. — The edge of a leaf-blade is called its 
margin. 



I 



Fig. 12. 



Fig. 13. 




Entire. 




An Entire margin is even and smooth, like Fig. 12. 
A Ser^rate margin has sharp teeth pointing for- 
ward like a saw (see Fig. 13). 



Fig. 14. 



Fig. 15. 




Dentate. Dentate. Crenate. 

A Den^tate margin has sharp teeth pointing out- 



THE LEAF. 



ward. Figs. 14 and 15 are different forms of Dentate 
margin. 

A Cee^nate margin has broad, rounded notches, 
like Fig. 16. 

Fig. 17. Fig. IS. 





Eepand. 



A Lobed Leaf. 



In Eepajstd' (Wayy) margins the edge curves out- 
ward and inward, as in Fig. 17. 

Such deep notches as are seen in Fig, 18 form 
lobes. 

Each of these different kinds of margin varies in 
many ways, and some of the variations are important 

Fig. 19. 





Coarsely Serrate, 



J \ 



Finely Serrate. 



in description. For instance, serrate margins are 
sometimes Coarsely Serrate (Fig. 19), Finely Ser- 



26 



THE FIRST BOOK OF BOTANY. 






RATE (Fig. 20), Doubly Seeeate (Fig. 21), and Un- 
evenly Seeeate (Fig. 22). 




Fig. 22. 



Doubly Serrate. 




Unevenly Serrate. 



Fig. 23. 



Look out for tlie same kinds of variation among 
crenate margins. Fig. 23 shows yon a Finely Cee- 
NATE margin. Donbly cre- 
nate margins are very com- 
mon. 

Dentate margins are 
coarse, fine, double, and also 
nneven. 

You will sometimes find 
two kinds of margin on the 
same leaf. Part of the notches may be serrate and 
part dentate, and this forms a .serrate-dentate margin. 
If some of the notches are crenate and some serrate, 
it will be crenate-serrate, and so on. 

In answering the new question, Margin ? which 
you will find in the next schedule, you must look 
closely for all these different forms, and get familiar 
with the terms by which they are described. 




Finely Crenate. 




27 



Schedule Second, describing Fig. 24. 



Parts? 


.^l0tac/e, ^nealn^, c^£eaa/e. 


Yenation ? 


.£^aia//e/-veme(/. 


Margin ? 


SnMe. 



28 THE FIRST BOOK OF BOTANY. 

EXERCISE YII. 
Sases. 

The Base of a leaf is its lower or attached end. 
Bases are 

CoR^DATE (Heart-shaped). — Shaped like a heart. 
Fig. 25. 



Fig. 26. 



Fig. 27. 




Ren'iform (Kn)NEY-SHAPED). — Shaped like a kid- 
ney. Broader than long. Fig. 26. 

AuRic'iJLATE (Ear-shaped). — With small, rounded 
lobes at the base. Fig. 27. 



Fig. 28. 



Fig. 29. 



Fig. 30. 



Fig. 31. 




Has^tate (Halbert - shaped). — With spreading 
lobes at the base. Fig. 28. 

Sag^ittate (Arrow-shaped). — With sharp lobes at 
the base pointing backward. Fig. 29. 



THE LEAF. 



29 



Oblique^ — With one side of the base larger and 
lower than the other. Fig. 30. 

TAPERmG. — Where the blade tapers oft* at the 
base. Fig. 31. 



Fig. 32. 



Fig. 33. 



Fig. 34. 




Clasping. — Where the base folds around the stem 
of the plant. Fig. 32. 

Connate^ — Where the bases of two leaves grow 
together around the plant-stem, as in Fig. 33. 

Decue'rekt. — Where the lower part of the mid- 
rib grows to the plant-stem, as in Fig. 3i. 



IToTE. — Children will, of course, get leaves from the same 
plants, and describe them over and over again as they pass on 
from schedule to schedule. A few plants will obtrude them- 
selves upon the attention, and each day the pupil will gather 
leaves from these alone. At first they will have very little 
enterprise in searching for new specimens, but will be con- 
tent with whatever is easiest. These will serve perhaps as 
well as any to illustrate the new character brought out by 
the new schedule, but the repetition of old observations upon 
them will require but little effort of the attention. This repe- 
tition of observations upon the same varieties of leaves is 
proper and desirable, but not sufficient for our purpose. As the 
wealth of varied forms that plants present is to be our means 
of educating the observation, it is indispensable that our re- 



30 



THE riEST BOOK OF BOTAi^Y. 

Fig. 35. 




Schedule Thied, describing Fig. 35. 



Parts? 


M/ar/e, m^co/e. 


Venation ? 


Q/^eamei^2/etnec/, 


Margin ? 


0n^t.le. 


Base? 


i/uadl/u {a/ieU?ia. 



The base of Fig. 35 is mncli less tapering than 
Fig. 31. You will find all degrees, in this respect, 
from very blunt to very tapering. You will also 
be likely to find many leaves to which none of 
these pictures apply. In such cases you may 
write, I do not know, in the schedule, and wait 
till further exercises have shown you how to de- 
scribe them. 



sources shall be as extensive as possible. Teachers should there- 
fore press beginners and negligent pupils about looking for 
new specimens. After a little time, such pressing will, in most 
cases, be unnecessary ; for, when the interest and pride of 
a child are awakened by success in describing plants, he will 
take increasing pains to find new subjects for description. 



THE LEAF. 31 

EXEBOISE VIII. 
Apeoces, 

The Apex of a leaf is its top, or free end. 

Fig. 36. Fig. 37. Fig. 38. Fig. 39. Fig. 40. 




Ttie Apex of a leaf may be : 

AcuTE^ — Simply ending with a point. Fig. 36. 

Acu'minate. — ^Ending witli a long tapering point. 
Fig. 37. 

Obtuse'.— Blunt. Fig. 38. 

Tkun'cate. — Cnt oif at tlie apex. Fig. 39. 

Retuse^ — ^Witli the end rounded inward. Fig, 
40. 



Fig. 41. 



Fig. 42. 




Fig. 43. 




N 



Fig. 44. 



Obcoe'date. — Heart-shaped at the apex. Fig. 41. 

Emae'gin'Ate. — With a small notch at the apex. 
Fig. 42. 

Mu'cRONATE. — Tipped with a stiff*, sharp point. 
Fig. 43. 

Cus^piDATE. — Suddenly ending with a sharp, slen- 
der point. Fig. 44. 



32 



THE FIRST BOOK OF BOTANY. 



The words acnte, acuminate, and obtuse may be 
used to describe hases as well as apexes^ and, when we 
wish to say that a shape is less acute or less acumi- 
nate than Figs. 36 and 37, we may say it is sub-acute 
or sub-acuminate, as in the schedule to Fig. 45. 

Fig. 45. 




Schedule Fourth, describing Fig. 45. 



Parts? 


..^/aae, .^L^lw/e, C/iti/iute^. 


Venation ? 


QAel=vecnec/, (^ealAei-uetnec/. 


Margin ? 


^yeiia^e. 


Base? 


(y-^lui^e. 


Apex? 


i/u/^-acu/e. 



THE LEAF. 



33 



EXERCISE IX. 



Forms of Lobes. 

The most striking diiTerence in lobed leaves is the 
one seen in contrasting Fig. 46 with Fig. 47. It will 
be qnite enough to ask of young beginners that they 
report whether the lobes of a leaf are rounded or acute. 



Fig. 46. 



Fig. 47. 





Rounded Lobes. 



Acute Lobes. 



But there may be older pupils who could profit- 
ably go further in observing the lobes of leaves. They 
vary much in size and shape, and are rarely all alike 
upon the same leaf. The lobe at the apex of a leaf 
is called the Terminal lobe, and is usually unlike all 
the others. The two lobes at the base are called 
lasal lobes, and these also are usually unlike all the 
rest ; for any pupils who would desire fuller observa- 
tions upon lobes, a schedule might be prepared with 
two additional lines and the two questions, Terminal ? 
and Basal ? added to the present one. It might be 
well in such a case to give the number of lobes upon 



34 



THE FIRST BOOK OF BOTANY. 



the leaf, along with their form, in answer to the ques- 
tion Lobes ? While the peculiarities of the terminal 
and basal lobes would be gi^n after these questions. 



Fig. 48. 




Schedule Fifth, describing Fig. 48. 



Parts ? 


^/ac/e, mi,-o/e. 


Venation ? 


,^a^/?ia^e=7/einec/. 


Margin ? 


Sn^tie. 


Base? 


^oic/ale. 


Apex? 


Q^a^e, 


Lobes ? 


Q^cule and ^/u^-acule. 



In dealing with lobed leaves, you will not always 
find the base and apex so easily described as is Fig. 
53, in the schedule. If they give you trouble, you 
may omit the questions. Base ? and Apex ? 



THE LEAF. 



35 



EXEECISE X. 
Forms of Sinuses* 



The SiVus of a leaf is the space left between lobes. 

We represent here some of the most nsual forms 
presented by Sinuses, with the terms describing them 
printed below the pictm-es. 



Fia. 49. 



Fig. 50. 



Fig. 51. 




Sharp and deep Siuus. 



Broad, round, shallow Sinus. 



36 THE FIRST BOOK OF BOTANY. 

Fig. 54. Fig. 55. 





Round, deep Sinus. 

Schedule Six, desceibing Fig. 55. 



Parts ? 


M/ac/e, m^co/e. 


Venation ? 


'.^a/^na^e^t^ecnec/. 


Margin ? 


^eiia^e. 


Base? 


Q^v uioac/, o/ie?i rj/mK^^^, 


Apex? 


Q^ute, 


Lobes? 


Q^tccc^e. 


Sinuses ? 


^in^ai/i, uA/iei o?ie6- aee/i. 



Note. — It will be observed that our exercises contain none 
of the descriptions of plants and explanations of their growth 
whicb usually make up the text of botanies. These might be 



THE LEAF. 



37 



Fig. 56. 



EXERCISE XL 
Kinds of Leaves. 

Fig. 57. 



Fig. 58. 






Sessile Leaf. 



Stipulate and Petiolate 
Leaf. 



A Petiolate aud Ex- 
stipulate Leaf. 



A Ses^sile Leaf is a leaf without a petiole. 
A Stip^ulate Leaf is a leaf that has stipnles. 
^A Pet^iolate Leaf is a leaf that has a petiole. 
An ExsTip Vlate Leaf is a leaf without stipules. 

In Schedule Seven, it will be seen, we have 
dropped the question Parts ? and put Kind ? in its 
place. The words by which you answer this ques- 
tion are very long, but you can soon learn to handle 
them, and by-and-by you will find them much more 
convenient in leaf-description than it will be always 
to give a list of the parts. 

easily given, but it would be a departure from our essential 
plan. The work before us — the observation of the external 
characters of plants — ^is itself extensive, and it can only be well 
done by making it at first our sole occupation. To observe 
carefully, to repeat our observations till they are familiar, and 
to acquire the ready and accurate use of the vocabulary of de- 
scription, are the only true foundation of a knowledge of botany ; 



38 



THE FIRST BOOK OF BOTANY. 
Fig. 59. 



--^s^^ 



Schedule Seven, describing Fig. 59. 



Kind ? 


,^zfe{wui^e, 0x^^/i.ic/a^e . 


Yenation ? 


Q^eamei=7/e^nec/, 


Margin ? 


rj/eiiale. 


Base? 


&€cale. 


Apex? 


Q^a77^tna^e. 


Lobes ? 




Sinuses ? 





and we must be careful not to anticipate the work which be- 
longs to a higher stage of the pupil's progress. The accounts 
of tissues, structures, and functions, add nothing to the under- 
standing of plant-forms, and they afford proper subjects for 
future exercises in observation, to be given in a second book. 
What we have presented is eminently adapted to childhood, 
when sense-impressibility, and curiosity about appearances are 
strongest, and before the reflective powers are much developed. 
The apparent meagreness of these pages is, therefore, inten- 
tional. They might easily have been filled with interesting 
reading matter about plants, but that would have opened the 
door to lesson-learning and reciting, which is a thing we special- 
ly wish to prevent. 



THE LEAF. 



39 



EXERCISE XII. 



Shapes of Leaves. 



Compare leaves that are not lobed with the first 
thi'ee groups of pictures. 

LEAVES THAT ARE BEOADEST m THE MHDDLE. 



Fig. 60. 



Fig. 61. 



Fig. 62. 





Rolun'date. EUip'tical. 

Fig. C4. Fig. 65. Fig. C6. 




V 



Oval. 



Linear. 



Acic'iilar. 



40 



THE FmST BOOK OF BOTANY. 



LEAVES THAT ARE BROADEST AT BASE. 

Fig. 67. Fig. 68. Fig. 69. Fig. TO. 




Cordate. 



Hastate. 



Sagittate. 



Some of the names here applied to the whole leaf 
have already been used to describe a part of a leaf. 
For instance, among bases we had the heart-shaped 
base, and now a particular leaf-form is said to be 
heart-shaped. But it will soon be seen that heart- 
shaped bases may occur in leaves of very various 
forms, though there is one general form in which the 



THE LEAF. 



41 



entire leaf resembles a heart, and is therefore said to 
be heart-shaped. So the base of a leaf may look like 
an arrow, while the rest of it is very unlike an 
arrow. The apex may be truncate or obcordate, or 
any other form rather than the acute ending of an ar- 
rowshaped leaf. Follow the order of the schedule 
carefully in your descriptions till you begin to grow 
familiar with varying leaf-forms, and soon all ap- 
pearance of confusion in the use of words will be at 
an end. 



LEAVES THAT ARE BROADEST AT THE APEX. 
Fig. 74. Fig. 75. Fig. 76. Fig. 77. 






Obcor'dato. 



Obo'vate. 



Oblan'ceolate. 



3paih'ulate. 



Do not expect to find an exact reproduction in 
Nature of the forms pictured in the book. Tou are 
simply to see which of the pictures your leaf is near- 
est like, and give it the name or the combination of 
names which the comparison seems to justify. 

There are, of course, many leaves that you will 
not at first be able to describe. But if you find a 



42 



THE FIRST BOOK OF BOTAjJ^Y. 



very puzzling leaf, to which the schedule does not 
seem to apply, you may compare it with the follow- 
ing pictures. Perhaps it will be like one of these, 
and if so, if you cannot describe it, you can at least 
learn what to call it. If it is not like any of these 
pictures, it will be best to postpone its study for the 
present. By-and-by you will know better how to 
manage it. 



Fig. 78. 



Fig. 79. 



Fig. 80. 




Runcinate. 



Bipinnatifid. 



Peclate. 



A EuN^ciNATE leaf is a lobed feather-veined leaf, 
in which the lobes point backward toward the base. 
Fig. 78. 

BipmisTAT'iFiD leaves are formed when a deeply- 
lobed feather-veined leaf has its lobes agam lobed, as 
in Fig. 79. 

A Ped'ate leaf is a lobed palmate-veined leaf, in 
which the lobes at the base are lobed again, and give 
the leaf a look like the foot of a bird. Fig. 80. 

Curled leaves (Fig. 81) are formed by a spread- 
ing of the border of the blade. 



THE LEAF. 



43 



Fig. 81. 




Peltate. 



Kidney-shaped. 



Peltate leaves are round, and have the petiole 
attached near the middle of the under surface of the 
blade. Fig. 82. 

A KiDi!q-EY-sHAPED leaf is short and broad, with a 
rounded apex and heart-shaped base. Fig. 83. 

A Lyrate leaf is a lobed feather- veined leaf, with 
the terminal lobe much larger than the others. Fig. 



44 



THE FIRST BOOK OF BOTANY. 



Laciniate leaves are so named because they look 
as if they had been gashed with scissors. Fig. 85 is 
an example of such a leaf. 




•^M 



Schedule Seven, desckibing Fig. 85. 


Kind ? 


J^e^w/a^e, Sx^^c/iu/ale . 


Venation ? 


J^a/m.a^e^vecner/. 


Margin ? 


072^cie, 


Base? 




Apex? 




Lobes ? 


Q^ctom.i'na/e. 


Sinuses ? 


f^nai/i, aee/i. 


Shape ? 


<^z^accnta^e. 



THE LEAF. 45 

EXERCISE XIII. 
JPetioleSf Surfaces^ and Colors* 

The following schedule lias three new questions 
added to it. The first is Petiole ? The shape of the 
petiole, whether round, roundish, or half-round, should 
be observed, and written down. And if it be re- 
markable for its length or shortness, if it be unusu- 
ally limber, or unusually stiff, you must mention 
these peculiarities about it. 

Color ? To this question the answer is easy. 
Leaves are sometimes light green, sometimes dark 
green ; and sometimes the upper surface is one color, 
and the lower another. There are spotted and striped 
leaves, and some leaves have a brownish or reddish 
tinge. All these things are to be noted when you 
see them. 

SuEFACE ? Observe whether the surface of a leaf 
has hairs or not. If it has hairs, write hairy after 
this question ; but, if it has no hairs, write glabrous^ 
which means free from hairs. 

Again, surfaces are either smooth or rough^ ob- 
serve which, and write the result in the schedule. 

Some leaves have a very shiny surface, and some 
are very duU^ and these differences should be ob- 
served, and written down ; but these qualities need 
not be noted unless they are strongly marked. 

These characters cannot be conveniently repre- 
sented by pictures, but they are readily seen in 
actual leaves. Feeling sure that you can easily make 
them out, we have not attempted to describe a leaf 
in schedule eight. • 



46 



THE FmST BOOK OF BOTANY. 



The schedule is now 
questions : 

Note. — While in a book 
we must present one definite 
order of exercises, it is well if 
teachers use their own judg- 
ment in adhering to this order. 
Often, doubtless, much will be 
gained by judicious deviation. 
There are minds that demand 
variety, or their interest flags ; 
and the minds of children, 
especially, are liable to grow 
weary of continued attention 
to one class of objects. Before 
proceeding with the exercises 
upon compound leaves, it may, 
therefore, be advisable to turn 
to the chapter upon the In- 
florescence, or that upon the 
Flower, and occupy a little 
time with the opening exercise 
in which the names of parts 
are brought before the mind. 
The identification and naming 
of the parts of the fiower will- 
be easier to most children than 
the discrimination of simple 
and compound leaves ; while 
dealing with another and more 
showy portion of the plant 
will stimulate the attention. 

The use of schedule eight 
should, however, still be kept 
pupil will come back to the s 
fresh relish for the subject. 



made up of the following 

Schedule Eight. 



Kind? 




Venation ? 




Margin 1 




Base? 




Apex? 




Lobes ? 




Sinuses ? 




Shape ? 




Petiole ? 




Color? 




Surface ? 





up, and, after a little while, the 
tudy of compound leaves with a 



COMPOUND LEAVES. 

EXERCISE XIV. 
Simple and Cmnpound Leaves* 

Fig. 88. Fig. 80. 



47 





Simple Leaf. 



Compoaud Leaf. 



Simple Leaves have only one blade. 

Coi^iPOUND Leaves consist of several distinct 
blades, called leaflets. You may know leaflets from 
lobes by tbeir being entirely separate from each other. 

Up to this time I suppose that pnpils have de- 
scribed leaflets as leaves ; but they must now be care- 
ful not to make this mistake. Let them confine 
themselves to simple leaves in using schedule eight, 
and write simple leaf upon it, to show that they 
have considered the matter. 

It is sometimes a very nice point to decide be- 
tween a deeply-lobed leaf and a compound leaf. If 



48 



THE FIRST BOOK OF BOTAJSTY. 



confusion at first arises, it must be patiently borne. 
We might add to the above definition of a compound 
leaf, that leaflets are jointed to the stalk, while the 
divisions called lobes never are. Such a statement 
would save trouble at first, but it would make greater 
trouble in the end. The truth is, that deeply-lobed 
leaves pass by insensible gradations into compound 
leaves, and compound leaves have their leaflets in all 
stages of connection with the common stalk, from a 
complete continuation of one into the other, up to a 
perfectly-jointed connection. 

If the green matter of a leaf is continuous around 
the veins and along the ribs, however narrow the 
strip may be, it is quite correct to call such a speci- 
men a simple leaf. 



Fig. 90. 



Fig. 91. 




Leaflets. 



There is no way, for the pupil, out of this diffi- 
culty except through a course of careful observation. 
Doubtless many mistakes will be made ; but mistakes 
are very useful in education. 



COMPOUND LEAVES. 



49 



EXERCISE XY. 
JParts of Cofnpound Leaves. 



Fig. 92. 



Leaflet. 




Fig. 93. 




Leaflets. 



Petiole, 



Stipules. 



50 



THE FmST BOOK OF BOTANY. 
Fig. 94. 




-=S^>!( 



'Stipnles. 



Leaflet. — One of the blades of a compound leaf. 
Pet^ioltjle. — Tlie stem of a leaflet. 
Sti^pels. — The stipules of leaflets. 
Ea^chis. — The continuation of the petiole to 
which leaflets are attached. 

Fig. 95. 




Schedule Nine, descbibing Fig. 95. 



Parts. 


MaM, Weiw/e, Ma/U. 


Xo. of Leaflets. 


//. 



COMPOUND LEAVES. 

EXERCISE XVL 
JPin^nate and Digitate Leaves, 



51 



Fig. 96. 



Fig. 97. 




Digitate Leaf. 

/^^^^^^^ In Plnnate Leaves, the leaf- 
' ^'^^ * lets grow along the sides of the 
rachis. 

In Digitate Leaves, the leaf- 
lets all start together from the 
\\| petiole. 




Pinnate Leaf. 



Schedule Ten, describing Fig. 97. 



Parts ? 


J^eftoce ■^zsaMeS. 


No. Leaflets ? 


5. 


Kind ? 


^^iadate. 



52 



THE FIRST BOOK OF BOTANY. 

EXEKOISE Xyil. 
Varieties of Pinnate Leaves. 

Fig. 98. Fig. 99. 





Abraptly Pinnate. 



Unequally Pinnate. 



Fig. 100. 



B'iG. 101. 








Cirrose. 



Interraptedly Pinnate. 



COMPOUND LEAVES. 



53 



Abruptly Pi]s^nate. — When the leaf terminates 
in a pair of leaflets. Fig. 98. 

Unequally Pinnate. — When the leaf terminates 
in an odd^ or single, leaflet. Fig. £9. 

Cikrose. — When the rachis ends in slender 
branching curls, called tendrils. Fig. 100. 

Interruptedly Pinnate. — When the leaflets are 
alternately large and small. Fig. 101. 




Twice Pinnate. 



Twice Pinnate. — When the petiolule is continued 
as a rachis which bears the leaflets. 



54 



THE FIEST BOOK OF BOTANY. 




Thrice Pinnate. 



Theice Pinnate. — When the leaflets are borne 
upon a third rachis, branching off from the second. 



EXERCISE XYIII. 

Varieties of Digitate Leaves* 

Theee - FiNGEEEp. — A digitate leaf with three 
leaflets. 



COMPOUND LEAVES. 55 

Fig. 104. Fm. 105. 





Three-fingered. 



Five-fingered. 



FivE-FESTGEKED. — A digitate leaf with five fingers 
or leaflets. 



Fig. 106. 



Fig. 107. 




Seven-fingered. 



Twice Three-fingered, 



56 



THE FIEST BOOK OF BOTANY. 



Seven - FINGERED. — A digitate leaf with seven 
fingers or leaflets. Fig. 106. 

Fig. 108. 




Schedule Eleven, describing Fig. 108. 



Parts ? 


c^elw/e, .^^acna, S£ea//el^, 


ISTo. Leaflets ? 


/O. 


Kind? 


'c/ innate. 


Yariety ? 


^dio^e. 



ISToTE. — This is the last leaf-schedule. With the next chap- 
ter we hegin the study of the stem. But we must still in some 
way pursue the study of leaf-forms, if we would render per- 
manent the knowledge we have already acquired. An observa- 
tion is by no means a mental possession as soon as it is made. 
True knowledge is always a growth requiring time ; and ob- 
servations have not only to be made^ but to be repeated^ and 



I 



COMPOUND LEAVES. 

EXEKCISE XIX. 
Forms of Stipules, 



57 



Fig. 109. 





Free Stipules. 



Adnate Stipules. 



Stipules are : 

Free. — ^When not united witli any other part. 

Adnate. — When they grow to the petiole. 

the facts knit into their places, to make them reliable mental 
possessions. Understanding a thing is but the first step 
toward its real acquirement. A succession of frequent ob- 
servations is necessary to induce familiarity with objects, and 
there must also be a recurrence to them — a revival of impres- 
sions after considerable intervals of time. It is possible to 
have an intense familiarity with things observed, by occupying 
the whole consciousness with them for a short time, but efiects 
thus produced are not lasting. We shall, therefore, continue 
our observations of leaves, and record them upon the stem- 
schedule. Pupils who have been diligent in the use of the 



58 



THE FIRST BOOK OF BOTANY. 



Fm. 111. 



Fig. 112. 





Thorny Stipules. 



Ochreate Stipules. 



Thoeny. — Like thorns. 

Ochreate. — When they form a sheath around the 

stem. 

If any of the distinctions among compound leaves 
bother very young pupils, let the observation of such 
be omitted for the present. 

preceding schedules, ought now to be able to describe leaves 
without their aid. Exercise XX. consists of two descriptions, 
in which the schedule questions are omitted. The order of 
description which has all along been followed will naturally 
have become the order of thought with pupils, and the prompt- 



COMPOUND LEAVES. 



59 



EXERCISE XX. 

Fig 113. Fig. 114. 





Leaf (Fig. 113). — Simple, petiolate, stipulate, net- 
veined, featlier-veined, entire, abruptly acuminate, 
broadly oval ; petiole^ short, bordered by the blade ; 
stipules^ free. 

Leaf (Fig. 114). — Compound, petiolate, stipulate, 
unequally pinnate, number of leaflets, 5 ; leaflets^ petio- 
late, feather- veined, serrate, ovate ; stipules^ adnate. 

ing of questions is now unnecessary. They have answered 
their purpose if they have led to a knowledge of the parts of 
leaves and their most important modifications of form. When 
this is done, it will he much more important that the pupil 
be unassisted in making descriptions than that he be always 
methodical and correct. 

For pupils that are old enough to punctuate their descrip- 
tions, the following rule will be useful : — 1. Separate adjectives 
relating to the same noun, by commas ; 2. Parts of the same 
organ, by semicolons ; 3. Distinct organs, by a period. 



CHAPTEE II. 
THE STEM. 



EXERCISE XXI. 
Parts of the Ste^n^ and Leaf Axil. 

Fm. 115. 



'Axil of Leaf. 





Nodes and luternodes. 



■ Intemode. 



■■Node. 



THE STEM. 



61 



Fig. 116. 





Node. — The point on the stem from which leaves 
are given off. 

Inter:n^ode. — The portion of the stem between 
two nodes. 

Leaf Axil. — The point at the upper side of the 
leaf where it joins the stem. 



JN'oTE. — Children will easily find the nodes and internodes 
of most stems, but they should not, therefore, hurry past this 
exercise without tracing the successive internodes of many 
stems from the root upward. The teacher should also see that 
a clear idea is gained of the axil of a leaf. 

If Figs. 116 and 117 are not intelligible to beginners, and 
the parts of short stems like these are distinguished with 
difficulty, let them be passed over, as the coming exercises 
are not dependent upon these discriminations. But, for those 
who can make them out, they will be profitable. 



62 



THE FIRST BOOK OF BOTANY. 

EXEKCISE XXII. 
Appendages of the Stem. 

Fig. 118. 




Terminal bud. 



Axillary bud. 



.Branch. 



TEEiNimAL Bud. — The bnd at the end of the stem. 
Ax^iLLART BiJD. — The bud in the axil of a leaf. 
Branch. — A stem which starts from the axil of a 



leaf. 




63 



Schedule Twelve, describing Fia. 119. 



Parts ? 


tyyoc/ed, Q/n^einoded- , 


Appendages ? 


<££ea2/e^, o/enc/uS, Q^/omeU, 



Leaf. — Petiolate, exstipulate, palmate-veined, 5- 
lobed, broad as long ; lobes ronnded, entire ; sinnses 
deep, round ; petiole long, slender. 

The appendages of the stem (Fig. 118) are leaves, 
buds, and branches. The terminal bud continues the 
growth of the main stem. Axillary buds give rise to 
branches, or secondary stems. 



64 



THE FIRST BOOK OF BOTANY. 



EXERCISE XXIII. 
I^osition of Leaves. 



Fig. 121. 



Cauline Leaves. 




Radical Leaves. 



Oau^line leaves grow along the caulis^ or stem. 
Radical leaves start close to the ground, or below 
its surface. 

I^OTE. — The term radical would seem to imply that the leaves 
spring from roots, which is not the case, as shown in Fig. 117. 



THE STEM. 
Fig. 122. 



65 




Schedule Thirteen, describing Fig. 122. 



Appendages ? 


.^zfea2/ed^ Q^wt^eU, 


Leaf-position ? 


'^au/me. 



Leaf. — Simple, sessile, feather- veined, entire, lan- 
ceolate; stipule^ ochreate. 

The question. Parts ? is now dropped, because it 
is answered in giving the position of the leaves. 
To say that leaves are cauline is to say that the stem 
is composed of both nodes and internodes, while, if the 
stem has radical leaves only, there are no internodes. 

1N"0TE. — When the nodes of a stem are distinctly jointed, 
when they are swollen and watery (tumid), when they are 
hairy, or when of a different color from the internodes, they 
give a peculiar aspect to the plant, and pupils should be en- 



66 



THE FIRST BOOK OF BOTANY. 

EXEECISE XXiy. 
Arrangement of Leaves on the Stein. 



Fig. 123. 




Alternate Leaves. 



Fig. 124. 




Opposite Leaves. 



Alternate Leaves. — Leaves are alternate on the 
stem when there is but one at each node, as in Fig. 
123. 

couraged to record such facts upon the schedule. Very long or 
very short internodes, and other noticeable peculiarities, should 



I 



THE STEM. 



67 



Opposite Leaves. — When two leaves grow oppo- 
site each other, w^e call it the opposite arrangement. 
Fi^. 124. 



Fig. 125. 




Whorlecl Leaves. 



Whorled Leaves. — ^When there are more than 
two leaves at a node, we say the leaves are w4iorled. 



be stated. A word or two at the bottom or back of the sched- 
ule, as, nodes tumid, or, internodes very long, is all that is 
requisite. Brevity and precision of statement should always 
be insisted upon. 



68 THE FIRST BOOK OF BOTANY. 

Fig. 126. 




Schedule Fifteen, desckibing Fig. 126. 



Appendages ? 


<^£eaz^e^. 


; 

Leaf-position ? ^au/ine. 


! 
i 

Leaf-arrangement? \(3^/M7iale. 


The Leaf. — Sessile^ feather-veined, serrate, lan- 
ceolate. 



Note. — Leaf-position and leaf- arrangement pertain as much 
to the leaf as to the stem, but observations concerning them 
could not be properly made until something was known of the 
stem. "When the pupil becomes familiar with these characters, 
it will, perhaps, be more appropriate to notice them in the 
leaf-description than in the stem-description. 



THE STEM. 



69 



Fig. 127. 



EXEECISE XXy. 
Shapes of Stems, 

Fig. 128. 



Fig. 129. 




Square. 



Five-sided. 



Four-angled. 



These are by no means all the shapes, nor the 
precise shapes that stems assume, but their forms will 
most commonly be found to approach very nearly to 
some of the.se outlines. If any forms occur that are 
so widely different from the pictures as to perplex 
the pupil, he will consult the teacher. 



ro 



THE FIRST BOOK OF BOTANY. 



Fig. 136. 




Schedule Sixteen, describing Fig. 136. 



Appendages ? 



<^£ea'ued', ,.^ac/^. 



Leaf-position ? 



auune. 



Leaf-arrangement ? 



^loH^e. 



Shape \ 



^Loan(/, 



THE STEM. 



71 



Leaf. — Petiolate, exstipulate^ palmate - veined, 
serrate, base cordate, S-lobed, terminal lobe acumin- 
ate, leaf broader than long. 



Fig. ISl, 



EXEECISE XXVI. 
Attitude of Stems. 



Fig. 138. 




Erect. 



Droopiti^^. 



Erect stems stand upright. 

Dkooping stems are limber, and bend over. 



72 THE FIKST BOOK OF BOTANY. 

Fig. 139. 




Fig. 140. 




Oblique. 



THE STEM. 



73 



Creepi:n"G stems lie along the ground, and send 
down roots from their nodes. Fig. 139. 

Tkailing stems are weak, and lie loosely along 
the ground. Fig. 140. 

Oblique stems stand slanting. Fig. 141. 




Fm, 143. 



/} 



(1 



Climbing. 



CLiMBEsra stems are weak, and cling by tendrils to 
the objects about them. 

TwiOTNa stems are too weak to stand alone, 
and support themselves by winding around other 
stems. . 



74 THE FIRST BOOK OF BOTANY. 

Schedule Seventeen, describing Fig. 143. 



Appendages ? 


<^£eat^e^, &^/otiAeU, 


Leaf-position ? 


^au/cne. 


Leaf-arrangement ? G>{/lei7ia^e . 


Shape ? 


1 

J!!/lOU72c/. 


Attitude ? 


o/mintna. 



Leaf. — Simple, petiolate, exstipnlate, feather- 
veined, entire, cordate, sub-acuminate. 



EXEEOISE XXVII. 
Color ^ Surface, Size^ Structure. 

CoLOE. — Stems may be spotted, striped, green, 
brown, red, or purple. 

Surface. — The surface of stems, like that of 
leaves, is smooth, rough, shiny, dull, hairy, and 
glabrous. 

Size. — Stems may be high or low, slender or thick, 
and it is easy to determine these points. 

Steuctuee. — To find out the structure of a stem, 
you must break it, and observe first whether it is 
hollow or solid. Next examine it to ascertain if it 
have any tenacious threads ; these are woody fibres, 
and, when present, they help to make the stem hard 



THE STEM. 



Y5 



and tough. It is then called a Woody stem. But, 
if it is soft and brittle, it is an Herbaceous stem. 
The stem schedule consists now of the following 
questions : 

Schedule Eighteen. 



1 

Appendages ? 


Leaf-position ? 


Leaf-arrangement ? 




Shape ? 




Attitude ? 




Color? 




Surface ? 




Size? 


Structure ? 





Note. — In schedule eighteen, as in schedule nine, no picture is 
described, because two of the questions now added, viz., Color ? 
and Structure ? relate to features that cannot be easily repre- 
sented in a picture, while size and surface, as seen in nature, 
are so unlike pictorial presentations, that an example given 
here would be but a poor guide in schedule practise. The 
descriptive terms used in answering these questions are so 
familiar as not to need illustration. 



CHAPTEE III. 

THE INFLORESCENCE. 

Infloeescei^ce. — The way flowers are placed upon 
plants is called their inflorescence. 



EXERCISE XXYIII. 
Solitary and Clustered Inflorescence. 



Fig. 144. 




Solitary InfloresceDce. 



THE INFLORESCENCE. 
Fig. 145. 



77 




Clustered Inflorescence. 



Solitary Inflorescence is where only one flower 
grows upon a flower-stem. Fig. 144. 

Clustered Inflorescence is where several flowers 
grow from the same flower-stem. 

Mowers, or flower-clusters without stems, are said 
to be sessile. 

jN'ote. — This and the following exercise should be dealt with 
in the same manner as the first exercises in the chapters upon 
the leaf and stem. 



78 



THE FIKST BOOK OF BOTANY. 

EXERCISE XXIX. 
Parts of the Inflorescence. 

Fig. 146. 







j-f- Peduncle. 



—Peduncle. 



Pedun^cle. — The stem of a solitary flower, or of a 
flower cluster. 

Bracts. — The small leaves of a flower-cluster on 
the peduncle, or rachis. 

In^^olucee. — A whorl of bracts. 

Ped^icel. — One of the flower-stems in a cluster. 

Beact'lets. — Yery small leaves growing upon 
pedicels. 



THE INFLORESCENCE. 
Fig. 147. 



79 




Ra'chis. — The continuation of a peduncle, from 
which, flowers branch ofi*. 

Recep'tacle. — The top of a peduncle, from which 



several flowers start together. 



80 



Fig. 150. 



THE FIRST BOOK OF BOTANY. 

EXERCISE XXX. 
Attitude of Inflorescence, 

Fia. 151. 




Erect. 



Nodding. 



Erect. — TJpriglit. 
l^ODDiNG. — Bending over. 



N"oTE. — Many of the characters already noted as belonging 
to the stem of a plant, belong also to the peduncle. Its color, 
surface, shape, length, limpness, twist, and curvature, may be 
recorded in connection with the attitude in the same terms as 
are used in stem-descriptions. 

Some of the statements in the description of Fig. 152 are 
to be compared with the living plant, and not the picture. 



THE mFLORESCENCE. 
Fig. 152. 



81 




Pendulous. 

Pen'dulous. — Hanging down. 

Schedule Eighteen, describing Fig. 152. 



Parts? 


cfec/ccnc/e, Q^-Zowei. 


Attitude ? 


2/enc/u/ou^. 



Leaf. — Simple, petiolate, exstipnlate, feather- 
veined, irregularly-dentate, ovate-acuminate, green, 
smooth, cauline, opposite. 

SteMo — Round, slightly bending, reddish brown, 
smooth, slender, solid, woody. 



82 



THE FIRST BOOK OF BOTANY. 



EXEKCISE XXXI. 
Solitary Terminal and Axial Inflorescence. 

Fig. 153. 




Solitary Terminal. 

An inflorescence is Solitary Teemtn-al when the 
stem, or branch, ends in a single flower. 

The presence of nodes npon ordinary stems dis- 
tinguishes them from flower-stems or peduncles. 



THE mFLOKESCENCE. 

Fig. 154. 



83 




Solitary Axial. 

A SoLiTAEY Axial flower is one where the ped- 
uncle starts from the axil of a leaf. 

In Fig. 154 the pednncle of the lowest flower 
starts from the axil of the leaf, it is hence an axial 
flower; bnt the pednncle of the lowest flower in 
Fig. 153 starts at the flrst node of the branch, the 
growth of which it terminates ; it is hence a terminal 
flower. 



84 



THE FIRST BOOK OF BOTANY. 



EXEECISE XXXII. 
Clustered Axial and Terminal Inflorescence. 




Clustered Termiual. 

A Terminal Cluster of flowers is one that ends 
the growth of a stem, or branch. Fig. 156. 

Observe that the lowest bud in Fig. 156 is hardly 
discernible as a flower-bnd. The next is a little more 
advanced, the third still more, and so on till, at the 
top of the cluster, you see a fully expanded flower. 
The oldest flowers are at the top or centre of the 
cluster. This order is often reversed, the oldest 
flowers being at the bottom or outside of the cluster, 
and it is important for you to notice this circumstance 
in studying inflorescence. 



THE INFLOEESCENCE. 



85 




Clustered Axial. 



An Axial Cluster of flowers is one where the 
yjedimcle starts from a leaf axil. 

The question. Position ? is now added to the in- 
florescence-schedule. Every inflorescence is either 
terminal or axial, and the pupil is to determine this 
point, in order to answer the new question. When 
he begins the study of botany in its higher aspects, 
he will find that much depends upon his having care- 
fully observed such points as these. 



86 THE FIRST BOOK OF BOTAKY. 

Schedule Nineteen, describing Fig. 157. 



Parts ? 


U^eaunc^, cPec/cceS, (S^'mwcU. 


Attitude? 


Sled. 


Position ? 


Q4xtk/. 



Leaf. — Cauline, opposite, simple, sessile, feather- 
veined, crenate, or crenate-serrate, lower leaves, sub- 
acute, upper ones obtuse, lower leaves broadly ovate, 
upper ones broadly oval. 

Stem round, erect, herbaceous. 

E"oTE. — Determination of the position of an inflorescence 
is often very easy, yet sometimes it is puzzling and difficult. 
For instance, altbough the cluster (Fig. 156) is clearly ter- 
minal^ a thoughtful child might notice that each flower in 
this cluster is axial^ and so hesitate in deciding how to describe 
it. Such perplexities will be gradually cleared up as the child 
advances with the study. It should be remembered that many 
of the observations begun with this book are necessarily in- 
complete. Cloudiness of perception concerning some matters 
must, therefore, be tolerated at first. Clear and complete ideas 
can only arise as the mind develops, and the subject is further 
pursued. There are portions of almost every study over which 
children are hable to get confused at first. They see difficulties, 
but cannot see through them. Yet the discovery of difficulties 
is as much a part of education as the discovery of facts. It 
is the overcoming of difficulties, and this mainly, that exercises 
the judgment, and calls forth mental power. But, to gain these 
ends, it is important that the child be left to himself. It is bet- 
ter for him to form his own opinion, even though it be wrong, 
than to have every thing explained in advance. Extended ob- 
servation and continued thought may be trusted to correct 
errors made at first, as, without these conditions, there can 
be little real improvement. 



THE INFLOEESCENCE. 

EXERCISE XXXIII. 
Definite and Indefinite Inflorescence. 

Fig. 158. 



87 




Definite. 



All solitary terminal inflorescence, and all ter- 
minal clusters that, like Fig. 156, have their oldest 
flowers at the top or centre of the cluster, are said to 
be Defe^tite, because they end the growth of the 
stem or branch that bears them. 



88 



THE rmST BOOK OF BOTANY. 



Fig. 159. 




d 



Indeflnite. 



All axial inflorescence is Iistdefinite, because the 
stem and branches, if there be any, may grow on 
just the same as before blossoming. The inflores- 
cence in Fig. 159 is indefinite. The stem does not 
end with flowers, but with a leaf-bnd, which con- 
tinues its growth. 

The question. Kind ? is now added to the inflo- 
rescence-schedule, and pupils will state, in answer, 
whether the inflorescence is definite or indefinite. 



THE INFLOKESCENCE. 
Fig. 160. 



89 




Schedule Twenty, desckibinq Fig. 160. 



Parts ? 


c/^ec/anc^, Q^/oK/eU, Jl/tacn(4. 


Attitude ? 


Siecl. 


Position ? 


Q^xi'a/, 


Kind? 


Q/naeA^ii^e. 



Leaf. — Cauline, opposite, simple, sessile, feather- 
veined, entire, oval. 

Stem round, erect, slender, herbaceous. 

I^OTE. — Compare Fig. 160 with Fig. 156, and observe that 
they differ in the order in which the flowers unfold. In Fig. 
160 the oldest flowers are the lowest in the cluster. There 
is no flower at the top of the cluster, ending the growth of the 



90 



THE FIRST BOOK OF BOTANY. 



EXERCISE XXXIV. 
Varieties of Inflorescence. 

SIMPLE. 
Fig. 161. Fig. 162. 



Fig. 163. 




I 



p 



Q^ 



f^' 



^ 

^ 



^ 




Head. 



A' 



Spike. 



Spadix. 



Head. — ^A more or less globular cluster of flowers, 
sessile upon the receptacle. 

Spike. — A cluster of flowers, sessile upon a rachis. 

Spa^'dix. — A spike with, a thick rachis, and covered 
around by a single large leaf, or bract, called a 
spathe. 



stem, and so, as the racMs may grow on, sending off flowers 
from its side, we say the inflorescence is indefinite. 

The primary, or main stem, of a plant sometimes ends defi- 
nitely, or with a flower, while the branches, or secondary stems, 
grow on, or are indefinite. Sometimes the main stem is indefi- 
nite, and the branches are definite. When both kinds of in- 
florescence are found upon the same plant, it should be stated. 

To determine whether a flower-head is definite or indefinite, 
observe whether the unopened flowers are at the top or on the 
lower part of the cluster'. It is only in rare instances that 
they all open so nearly at the same time as to show no differ- 



THE INFLOEESCENCE. 



91 



Fig. 164. 



Fig. 165. 




l^ 



H^ 






N^ 



^^^Z' 
^-.z-^- 



^. 



N 









CatKin. 



S 

Raceme. 



Ament, or Catkin. — A spilce^ with sessile bracts 
among its flowers. It grows on trees and shrubs, 
and falls off after a while. 

The Eaceme is a flower cluster, where the flowers 
grow upon pedicels of about equal length along the 
rachis. 

Fig. 166. 




Glome rule. 



A GrLOMERULE is formed by nearly sessile clusters 
of flowers in the axils of opposite leaves. 

ence of age; but, when this is the case, you must leave the 
question undecided till you have discovered some other mode 
of solving it. 



92 THE FIRST BOOK OF BOTANY. 

Fig. 167. Fig. 168. 





Corymb. 



Umbel. 



The CoRY^iB is a flower cluster, with a short 
rachis, the lower pedicels of which are lengthened, so 
that the cluster is flat at top. 

An UiMBEL has no rachis, and the pedicels are of 
nearly equal length. 



COMPOTJlSrD. 



Fig. 169. 





Compound Raceme. 



Compound Corymb. 



A Compound Raceme, or Panicle, has a long 
rachis, and the flowers grow upon branches of the 
pedicels. When such a cluster is thick and cone- 
shaped, it is called a Thi^yse, 



II 



THE ESTFLORESCENCE. 93 

A CoMPOUOT) Corymb is a corymb witli the flowers 
growing upon brandies of tlie pedicels. Fig. 170. 

Fig. 171. 




Compound Umbel. 

A Compound Umbel has a second umbel, or um- 
bellet, upon each pedicel. 

IsToTE. — Most of the clusters pictured in this exercise are 
represented as without bracts, that differences in their modes 
of branching may be more easily compared. The pictures 
represent certain styles of flowering, and each of these styles 
varies very much in nature. You will find umbels very unlike 
each other, and very unlike Fig. 170, but still more nearly like 
that figure than any of the others. And so of panicles, co- 
rymbs, &c. Great differences among the clusters of one variety 
may be occasioned by the presence or absence of bracts, by 
their groupings, forms, and colors, by the length, stiffness, and 
even varying positions of peduncles and pedicels, as well as by 
differences in the form of receptacles. And besides, the vari- 
ous sorts run together in many different ways. You will 
sometimes find a flower-cluster resembling two different varie- 
ties so much that you will have to combine the names of the 
two in order to characterize it properly ; as, for instance, a 
corymbose panicle, a panicle of heads, or a spicose umbel. 
When you cannot name the variety, say so, and keep the in-' 
stance in mind until it becomes clear to you. 



94 . THE FIRST BOOK OF BOTANY, 

Fig. 172. Fig. 173. Fig. 174. 



M 




]!^OTE. — The difference between definite and indefinite flow- 
er-clusters is shown above. Fig. 172 represents an indefinite 
raceme, the growing end of which is surrounded by unopened 
flowers. In Fig. 174 the reverse is the case; the rachis ends 
with a flower — the oldest flower of the cluster, while at the 
other end, near the peduncle, the buds have scarcely begun to 
unfold. This, therefore, is clearly a definite raceme. In Fig. 
173 the oldest flowers of the cluster are near the peduncle, 
the growing end is surrounded by undeveloped buds, and its 
kind is easily determined. 



THE INFLORESCENCE. 
Schedule Twenty-one, describing Fig. 173. 



95 



I 

; Parts? 




Attitude ? 


diec^. 


Position ? 


Gyeii?7icna/. 


End? 


Q/nae/inUe. 


Variety ? 





Leaf. — Cauline, simple, sessile, exstipulate, feath- 
er-veined, serrate, oval-acute. 

Stem. — Erect, round, lierbaceons. 

This is the last inflorescence schedule,, and future 
descriptions of this part of plants will be made with- 
out the help of questions. There are some obvious 
characters of the inflorescence, easily understood and 
described, that have not been named in the schedule, 
and, that they may be noted in future descriptions, 
we call attention to them here. 

When many flowers are crowded upon a rachis, or 
receptacle, the cluster is said to be dense ; but when 
they are few and scattering, it is said to be loose. 

The bracts of a cluster may be very numerous, or 
they may present peculiarities that a child caifl easily 
describe, such, for instance, as relate to shape or 
color, or they may form an involucre at the base of 
the cluster, and these points might well be included 
in a description. 



CHAPTER ly. 
THE FLOWER. 



EXERCISE XXXy. 

Tarts of the Flower. 

Fig. 175 represents one flower — the parts, though 
separated, stand in their natnral relation to each other. 

Fig. 175. 



— Pistil. 



Stamens. 




Perianth. 



Calyx. 



Receptacle. 



EeCep'tacle. — The top of the peduncle, more or 
less swollen, from which the flower grows. 

Ca^lyx. — The onter circle of green flower-leaves. 

CoROL^LA. — The inner circle of delicately-colored 
flower-leaves. 



THE FLOWER. 



97 



Per^ianth. — A name given to both circles of 
flower-leaves when they are so nearly alike as not to 
be separable into calyx and corolla. 

Sta^mens. — Slender, thread-like parts next inside 
the corolla. 

Pig^TiL. — The central part of the flower inside the 
stamens. 

When there is but one whorl of flower-leaves, 
whatever its color, it is called a calyx. 



EXEKCISE XXXVI. 
Tarts of the Caly^. 



Fig. 176. 



Fig. m. 




Sepal. 




Sepal. 



Calyx. ^^^^^ Sepal. 

Se'pal. — One of the leaves of the calyx. 

Note. — The first thing in stndjdng the flower is to hecome 
acquainted with its leading parts and their names. This is 
done hj comparing numerous specimens with Fig. 175. The 
pupil is then ready to begin work with the flower schedule. 
Figs. 177 and 179 are given to assist the pupil in answering the 
first questions upon it. Write under the question, calyx ? the 
names of the parts that compose the calyx, and under the question, 
corolla? the names of the parts that compose the corolla. Then 
count the sepals in your flower, and write their number after 
the word sepals, in the next column ; count also the petals in 
the corolla, and write their number after the word petals. 
5 



98 



THE FIKST BOOK OF BOTANY. 



Fig. its. 



EXEEOISE XXXyil. 
Parts of the Corolla. 

Fig. 179. 




Petal. 



'-'A 



; Petal. 



I/- 



Petal. > I J ^-< 



Corolla. 




o 



Petal. 



Pet^al. — A leaf of the corolla. ?- 



Fig. 180. 



Fig. 181. 




Schedule Twentt-two, 

DESCEIBING FiG. 178. 



Names of Parts. 


No. 




Calyx ? 
<JeAaS. 


5 . 




Corolla ? 


5. 






Schedule Twenty-three, 

DESCRIBING FiG. 179. 



Names of Parts. 



Perianth ? 



No. 



^ 



THE FLOWER. 



99 



EXERCISE XXXVIII. 
Kinds of Calyxo 



Fig. 183. 



Fig. 183. 





Polysepalous Calyx. 



Gamosepalous Calyx. 



A PoLYSEP^ALOus Calyx has its sepals free from 
each other, so that each one can be pulled off separately. 

A Gamosep'alous Calyx has its sepals more or 
less grown together by their edges, so that, if you 
pull one, the whole calyx comes off. 

Having used schedules twenty-two and twenty- 
three till the names of the parts that compose the 
calyx, corolla, and perianth, are firmly associated 
with the parts themselves, we are now ready to begin 
their description. Schedule twenty-four shows you 
where to write what you have to say about them. 
Observe first whether the sepals of a calyx, the 
petals of a corolla, or the leaves of a perianth, ar^ 
grown together or not. Sometimes they cohere so 
slightly, that close observation is necessary to ascer- 
tain it. Be cautious about pronouncing a corolla 
polypetalous until you have made many observations 
upon different specimens of it. Do not guess. 

Tou can count the petals of gamopetalous corollas 
by their marks of cohesion. 



100 



THE FIRST BOOK OF BOTANY. 



EXEECISE XXXIX. 
Kinds of Corolla and JRerianth. 

Fig. 184. Fig. 185. 





Polypetalous Corolla. 



Gamopetalous Corolla. 



A Polypet'alous Coeolla has its petals free and 
separate from eacli other, so that each one can be 
pulled off without disturbing the others. 

A Gamopet'alous Corolla has its petals more or 
less grown together by their edges, so that if you 
pull one the whole corolla comes off. 

Schedule Twenty- four, describing Fig. 185. 



Names of Parts. 



No. 



Description. 



Calyx? 



f^a^no^ej 



e/ia/ou^. 



enatd^. 



4. 



Corolla ? 



^e^a/i. 



'yamo/ie^aibud. 



4. 



THE FLOWER. 



101 



A PoLYPHYL^LOus Perianth lias its leaves entirely 
free and separate from eacti other. 

A Gamophyl^lous Peeiaj^th has its leaves more 
or less coherent by their edges. 

In the schedule will be seen a space where the 
forms of sepals and petals should be recorded in the 
same terms used to describe leaves. 



EXERCISE XL. 
Megular and Irregular Corollas and Perianths, 



Fig. 186. 




Fig. 187. 




Regular Gamopetalous Corolla. Irregular Gamopetalous Corolla. 

A Eegular Calyx, Corolla, or Perianth, has 
its parts of the same size and shape. 

An Irregular Calyx, Corolla, or Perianth, has 
its parts unlike in size or form. 



102 



THE FIEST BOOK OF BOTANY. 





Schedule Twentt-five, DEscKiBma Fig. 188. 



Names of Parts. 


No. 


Description. 


Calyx? 
cfe/iaS. 


d. 


^/ya7no^eAa/ou^, tiieau/ai. 


Corolla ? 


3. 


^^a?7Zo/i6^a/ou^j t^Ueau/ai, 



Schedule Twenty-six, describing Fig. 189. 



Names of Parts. 


No. 


Description. 


Perianth ? 


^ 


.:^o/y/i '^y-^oa&j ieau/ai . 



THE FLOWEK. 

EXERCISE XLI. 
Farts of Sta^nens^ 

Fig. 190. 

—Anther. 



-Pollen. . 
-Filament. 



103 



Fil'ament. — The stem-like part of a stamen. 

Another. — The thickened oblong head of a fila- 
ment. 

PoL^LEJsr. — The dust, or powder, seen upon the 
anther. 

Schedule twenty-seven has added to it the new 
question. Stamens ? Write underneath it the name 
of the parts that compose a stamen of your flower. 
Count the number of stamens, and write it down, 
unless they are too numerous, when you will use 
the character oo , signifying many. Write free, when 
they are so ; and coherent, when they are grown to- 
gether. 

When the filament is absent, write sessile after 
anther. To describe the filaments, observe whether 
they are long or short, slender or thick, flat or 
round, free or grown together. 

Observe whether the anthers are one-lobed or 
two-lobed, that is, whether they are in two parts or 
pieces ; and note also whether they are oblong, round, 
curved, straight, large or small, longer or shorter than 
the filaments, free or grown together. 



104 



THE FIRST BOOK OF BOTAJ^Y. 
Fig. 191. 




Schedule Twenty-seven, desceibing Fig. 191. 



Names of Parts. 


No. 


Description. 


Calyx? 

C'eAaS. 


2, 


^^-{/ya??zo^e/ia/oud, ieau/ai. 


Corolla? 


4. 




Stamens ? 


00 





Note. — Our descriptions of pictured flowers are necessarily 
imperfect, because the pictures are themselves imperfect. As 
the pollen is not represented in Fig. 191, it is, of course, omit- 
ted from the schedule. We can say nothing, in a book, of the 
color or size of specimens ; yet the plan of working is clearly 
illustrated, and pupils will not find it difficult, at this stage, 
to add such points without the guidance of a pattern schedule. 



THE FLOWER. 



105 



EXEECISE XLII. 
I^arts of the Pistil, 



Fig. 192. 

/7^^---Sticmia. 



'Style. 



Ovary. 



O Vary. — The lowest part of 
the pistil, containing the seeds. 

Style. — The slender stem- 
like part of the pistil next above 
the ovary. 

Stig^ma. — The top of the 
pistil. 



EXERCISE XLIII. 
Parts of the Ovary, 



Fig. 193. 



Fig. 194. 





Oau^pel.— One of the divisions, or cells, of the 
ovary. 



106 



THE rmST BOOK OF BOTANY. 



Fig. 195. 



Fig. 196. Fig. 197. 




Schedule Twenty-eight, describing Fig. 195. 



Names of Parts. 


No. 


Description. 


Periantli ? 




J^o/yAdy//om, ieau/ai. 


.^z^eav-ed. 


6. 




Stamens ? 


d. 


G^iee, 


Q^i/amen^. 




cn^naei. 


Q^nl^ei, 


■ 


Ut'/ona. 


Pistil? 






^ai^ed. 


J. 




^ye. 




Q^ dcna/e commn. 


c/uama. 




O/Aiee-Zoo^ec/. 



THE FLOWEE. 107 

The question Pistil ? is now added to tlie sched- 
ule, and is to be answered in the same way as the 
questions Perianth ? and Stamens ? First write the 
name of its parts underneath, and then find out, if 
YOU can, the number of carpels that compose the 
ovary. It is sometimes quite difficult to do this, but 
it is well always to make the effort. When the car- 
pels cannot be distinguished, you determine their 
number by counting the styles, and, if these are 
grown smoothly together, then count the lobes of the 
stigma. It is very seldom that this part of the pistil 
is so coherent that the lines of union are invisible. 
You can often, in this way, find out the number of 
carpels in a pistil, when every other means fails. In 
describing the various forms of style no new terms 
are needed. 



EXERCISE XLiy. 
Parts of the JPetals. 

Fia. 199. 



Claw. 



•Lamina. 



-Claw. 



Laj^i^ika. — The upper, and usually the broadest 
and thinnest, part of a petal. 

Claw.— The lower part of a petal, which attaches 
it to the receptacle. 



108 



THE FIRST BOOK OF BOTANY. 

EXERCISE XLY. 
Kinds of Regular Polypetalous Corollas. 



Fig. 200. 



Fm. 201. 





Cruciferous. Caryophyllaceous. 

A Crucif'erous Corolla has four petals growing 
in the shape of a cross. 

A Caryophylla^ceous Corolla has five petals, 
having each a long, slender claw, and a spreading 
blade. 



Fig. 202. 



Fig. 203. 





Rosaceous. 



Liliaceous. 



A EosA^cEous Corolla has five petals, with spread- 
ing lamina and short claw. 

A LiLiA^CEous Perianth has six leaves, bending 
away something like a bell. 



THE FLOWER. 



109 



EXERCISE XLYI. 
Kinds of Irregular Polypetalous Corolla. 

Fig. 204. Fm. 205. 





Papilionaceous Corolla. 



Fig. 206. 




Banner. 



Wiugs. 



Keel. 



The Papiliona^ceous Corolla has five dissimilar 
petals, arranged like Fig. 204. The one nearest the 
stem (the upper. Fig. 206) is called the hanner ; the 
two side ones are called wings^ and the lower one the 
heel. 

E'oTE. — Learn to distinguisli the banner, wings, and keel of 
papilionaceous corollas, and note the differences of their forms 
in different kinds of flowers. You can write such observations 
upon the back of the schedule. 



110 THE FIRST BOOK OF BOTANY. 

Fig. 20T. Fig. 208. 





Fig. 209. 

There are many other varieties 
of polypetalous irregular corollas 
which are described generally as 
anomalous. Fig. 207 is a com- 
mon form of anomalous corolla. 
There is an interesting tribe of 
plants known as orchids, which 
present many anomalous forms of corolla ; Fig. 208 
is an example. Fig. 209 being a separate flower from 
the same plant. Anomalous flowers should be further 
described as polypetalous or gamopetalous, for they 
occur among both these forms. 




Fig. 210. 



THE FLOWER. 

Fig. 211. 



Ill 



Fig. 212. 





Schedule Twenty-nine, describing Fig. 211. 



Names of Part=. 


No. Description. 


Calyx? 


4. 


1 


Corolla ? 


4. 


^/a^c^^ Zona, ^i7n4 ^Meac/ina , 


Stamens % 


^ 




Pistil? 







112 



THE FIRST BOOK OF BOTANY. 



EXERCISE XLYII. 
IParts of a Gainopetalous Corolla. 

Fig. 213. Fig. 214. 

Throat. 





Tube. — That part of the corolla, whether long or 
short, in which the petals are united together. 

Limb, or Border. — The upper part of the corolla, 
where the petals are not united. 

Throat. — The opening of the tube. 

Corolla Tubes may be long or short, slender or 
swollen, tapering or cylindrical, or with a pouch, or 
sack, on one side. 

The Limb may be narrow or broad, erect or 
spreading; and. 

The Throat is either open or constricted, hairy 
or smooth. 

Note these features in describing gamopetalous 
corollas. 

Note. — The last exercises of this chapter introduce twenty or 
thirty new terms, expressive of as many different ideas of form. 
In learning the precise word for each form, proceed very slowly 
from exercise to exercise, searching constantly for illustrative 
specimens. Learn the names of the parts of a petal and of a 
gamopetalous corolla. Let time be taken to examine all the 
flowers that can be found, comparing their corollas with the 
pictures, fixing, for each flower, upon the picture it most nearly 
resembles. 



THE FLOWER. 



113 



EXERCISE XLYIII. 
Kinds of Hegular Gamopetalous Corollas. 

Fig. 215. Fia. 216. Fig. 217. 




Funnel-form. 



Salver-form. 



Campanulate. 

Tu^BULAR. — A tubular corolla is one in which the 
tube spreads little or none at the border. Fig. 215. 

Ur^ceolate, — A corolla is urceolate when the tube 
is swollen in the middle, with a narrow opening like 
an urn, as in Fig. 216. 

Eo'tate, or Wheel-shaped Corollas have a 
short tube and flat, spreading border. Fig. 217. 



114 



THE FIEST BOOK OF BOTANY. 



FuN^KEL-FOEM. — ^When the corolla-tube is small 
below, and enlarges gradually to tlie border, as in 
Fig. 218. 

SalVek-foem. — When the long, slender tube of a 
corolla ends abruptly in a flat spreading border, as 
seen in Fig. 219. 

Campa:n^^ulate. — Bell-shaped corollas are said to 
be canipanulate. Fig. 220. 



EXERCISE XLIX. 
Irregular Gamopetaloiis Corollas. 

Labiate Coeollas. 



Fig. 221. 



Fig. 222. 




Personate. 



Riugent. 



Fig. 223. 




La'biate. — In labiate corollas the limb has the 
appearance of lips ; Figs. 221 and 222. Labiate 
corollas are of two kinds, personate and ringent. 



THE FLOWER. 



115 



Pee^sonate. — "Witli the throat open. Fig. 221. 

Ee^'gent.— With the throat closed. Fig. 222. 

A LiG-^ULATE, or strap-shaped, corolla, is one which 
appears as if it were formed by the splitting of the 
tube on one side. Fig. 223. 

Fig. 225. 





Anomalous. 



Anomalous. 



An-om^alous. — All other irregular gamopetalous 
corollas, as Figs. 224 and 225, are called anomalous. 

In describing corollas, the terms cruciferous, lil- 
iaceous, tubular, etc., may now be used in place of 
polypetalous, gamopetalous, regular and irregular, as 
the new terms include these characters, along with 
others, more limited and special. To say, for ex- 
ample, that a corolla is cruciferous^ is to say that it 
is polypetalous and regular, and also to state the 
number and position of its petals. To say that a 
corolla is strap-shaped^ is the same as saying that it 
is gamopetalous. and irregular as well as what par- 
ticular form it has. 



116 



THE FIRST BOOK OF BOTANY. 
Fm. 226. 




Schedule 


rHIRTY, DESCRIBING FiG. 226. 


Names of Parts. 


No. 


Description. 


Periantli ? 




<^i.uaceou^. 


.^£ea7/e6-. 


6. 


<^£anceouile ^ ^tecaiz^ea. 


Stamens ? 


/ 




Q:^i/a7nye7i^ . 




<^f^ona^ <_7/enaei. 


&{n^Aei. 




6^ 


Pistil? 






^ayieA 


J. 




^y/e. 




cnna/e^ ry7?zoo{A. 


^i^eama. 




Qydiee^c/e/^. 




117 



Schedule Thtrtt-one, desceibing Fm. 297. 



Names of Parts. 


No. 


Description. 


Calyx ? 




^^:UcimoM/i.a/oud. 


i/e/iaS. 


5. 




Corolla ? 




^amei-/oi77i. 


WeMd. 


5. 




Stamens ? 


5. 


\ 


Q.^{^a?nen^. 






Q^ndei. 






Pistil? 






^ai/ied. 













118 THE FIRST BOOK OF BOTANY. 

EXEECISE L. 
Crowns^ Spurs^ and Nectaries, 

Fig. 228. Fig. 229. 





The CoEONA, or Crown, is a scale-like structure 
(Fig. 228) on the inner surface of corollas, at the 
summit of the claw, or tube. 

A Spur is a tubular prolongation of a petal or 
sepal. Fig. 229. 



Fig. 230. 



Fig. 231. 





Nectary. 



Nectary. 



A ITectary is a little gland on the claw of a 
petal that secretes a sugary liquid. In Fig. 230 
these glands are naked, while in Fig. 231 the little 
gland is covered by a scale. 



THE FLOWEE. 

Fig. 233. 



119 




Corolla with Crown. Spurred Calyx and Corolla. 

The statement proper in describing the corolla 
(Fig. 232) is as follows : 



Corolla ? 




^:^aiyoAny/uiceoui^, 


c/eAaS. 


5. 


<^cmv-, oucoic/a^e / ciotiAn 






al vade. 



We describe a calyx and corolla like that shown 
(Fig. 233) as follows : 



Calyx % 


5. 


'^cl/iAei one d/iuiiec/. 


Corolla ? 


4. 


^/lA/iei one k/c^A d/iai, ^io^ 



CHAPTEE V. 
THE ROOT, 



EXERCISE LI. 

Tap-Hoots and Fibrous Moots. 

There are two classes of roots, called tap-roots 
and fibrous roots, which differ from each other in the 
way shown in Figs. 234 and 235. 

Fig. 234. Fig. 235. 





Tap-root. Fibrous Root. 

Fig. 234 represents a Tap-root, which is seen to 
be simply a continuation of the stem downward. 

In Fig. 235 the stem is not continued downward 
as a tap-root, but sends off rootlets or fibres at the 
outset. It is hence called a Fi^brous Root. 



THE ROOT. 



121 



EXERCISE LII. 
Kinds of Tap-Moot, 



Fig. 236. 






Conical Root. 



Fusiform Root. 



Napiforra Root. 



Oon'ical Eoots are tap-roots, which taper gradu- 
ally downward, and so are shaped like a cone. Fig. 
236. 

Fu^siroRM, OR Spindle - SHAPED Roots, are tap- 
roots enlarged in the middle of their length, and 
tapering toward both ends. Fig. 237. 

A Nap^iform, or Turnip-shaped Root (Fig. 238), 
is a tap-root, more or less globnlar in form. 

The kinds of tap-root illustrated in this exercise 
are equally continuations of the stem, with that 
shown in Fig. 234. By reference to Fig. 116, it will 
be seen that these stems are made up of nodes, and 
are just as really stems as those in which the intervals 
between the nodes are considerable. 

6 



122 



THE FIRST BOOK OF BOTANY. 



EXEECISE LIII. 
Kinds of Fibrous Moots* 

Fig. 239. Fig. 240. 




Fig. 241. 





Moniliform Root. 



Fig. 242. 




Fasciculated Root. 



Tubercular Root. 



THE ROOT. 123 

In MoNiL^iroRM Eoots (Fig. 240) some of the fibres 
Lave numerous small swellings, that succeed each 
other so as to look like a string of beads. 

In Fascic^ulated Eoots (Fig. 241) the fibres be- 
come swollen along their length, and look like a 
bundle of fusiform roots. 

When some of the rootlets of fibrous roots become 
fleshy and enlarged, taking the form shown in Fig. 
212, they are called Tubeeculae Eoots. 

ISToTE. — It is not difficult to see that the moniliform root is 
only a fibrous root, in which regulai^ portions of the fibres have 
become swollen. When all these swellings unite in one con- 
tinuous enlargement, we have a fasciculated root (Fig. 241). 
When the swellings are shortened and globular (Fig. 242), we 
name them tubercular roots, but their resemblance to the 
fibrous root is still apparent. 

The questions about roots suggested by this chapter are, 
first, is the specimen in hand a tap or fibrous root? The 
answer may not always be easy, but the pupil will exercise 
his best judgment upon it. If it be fibrous, however, say so ; 
if any modification of fibrous, say which, and similarly if the 
kind be a tap-root. For aid in describing roots, we must refer 
pupils to the exercises in plant description, which follow. 

There is usually a certain balance between the size of the 
root and stem of a plant ; but sometimes the root is very small 
compared with the stem and branches, and sometimes it is 
large. F:oots may also be loosely attached to the soil or firmly 
planted therein ; they may be spreading near the surface, or 
may grow directly downward, and such facts are worthy of 
note in root descriptions. 



EXAMPLES m PLANT DESCRIPTION, 



ILLUSTRATIVE OF THE FOREGOING EXERCISES. 



Fig. 243. 




PLANT DESCEIPTION. 125 



Description of Fig. 24=2. 

Roots fibrous. 

Leaves radical, petiolate, exstipulate, palmate- 
veined, entire, acutely three-lobed ; base cordate, 
surface hairy. Bracts hairy, in a whorl of three 
near the flower. 

LsHFLORESCENCE solitary, on a slender hairy scape. "^ 

Flower. Calyx ; sepals 8-12, oblong spread- 
ing : COROLLA none : stamens many ; filaments 
threadlike ; anthers oval, two-celled : pistil ; car- 
pels many ; style very short ; stigma continued down 
the inner face of the style. 

* Scape, a peduncle which arises from an underground stem. 



Fig. 243. 




PLAKT DESCEIPTIOIS^. 127 



Description of Fig. 243. 

KooTs fibrous. 
Stem a scaly bulb. 

Leaves radical, petiolate, exstipiilate, digitately 
tliree-fingered ; leaflets sessile, featlier-veined, entire, 

obcordate ; petiole long, slender. 

Inflorescence a loose terminal umbel. 

Flower. Calyx ; sepals 5, polysepalous : corol- 
la ; petals 5, regular, polypetalous, obovate, mucli 
larger than the sepals : stamens 10, of unequal length, 
hairy ; fllaments awl-shaped, flattened below, grown 
together; anthers short, oval, two-celled: pistil: 
ovary ovoid, of 5 united carpels / styles free, hairy ; 
stigmas enlarged, rounded. 



Fig. 244. 




PLA^T DESCKIPTIO:^^, 129 



Descriptiun of Fig, 244, 

EooTS fasciculated. 

Stem erect, round, slender, herbaceous. 

Leaves radical and cauline. Radical leaves 
twice ternately three-fingered ; leaflets petiolulate, 
palmate-veined, entire, three-lobed at the end, sub- 
cordate ; petiole long and slender. Cauline leaves 
numerous, simple, petiolate, exstipulate, formed like 
the leaflets of the radical leaves, placed in a whorl at 
the base of the inflorescence. 

Inflorescence a loose terminal umbel. 

Flower. Calyx ; sepals 6-8, spreading, poly- 
sepalous, regular : corolla ; petals none : stamens 
many ; filaments thread-like ; anthers two-celled : 
pistil ; carpels many. 



Fig. 245. 




PLANT DESCEIPTION. 131 



Description of Fig. 245* 

Roots brandling tap. 

Stem erect, slender, herbaceous, round, hairy. 

Leaves cauline, opposite, simple, sessile, exstipu- 
late, entire, ovate-acute. 

Inflorescence clustered, terminal, umbellate. 

Flower. Calyx ; sepals 5 : corolla ; petals 5, 
obcordate, spreading : stamens 10 ; filaments thread- 
like ; anthers oval, two-celled : pistil ; ovary ovoid, 
consisting of five united carpels ; styles short, free ; 
stigma along the inner face of the style. 



Fig. 240. 




PLAjSIT descbiptiojst. 133 



Description of Fig. 246. 

EooTS tuberous. 

Stem smooth, low, weak, slender, herbaceous, 
round. 

Leaves cauline, opposite, a single pair, sessile, 
exstipulate, feather-veined, entire, lanceolate. 

Inflorescence a loose definite raceme. 

Flowee. Calyx ; sepals 2, polysepalous, regu- 
lar : coEOLLA ; petals 5, polypetalous (or slightly 
coherent at the short claws), spreading ; stamens 5 ; 
filaments threadlike ; anthers oval : pistil ; carpels 
3 ; style slender, three-cleft ; stigma along the inner 
side of the three-cleft style. 



Fig. 247. 




PLAJST DESCKIPTION. 135 



Description of Fig. 24:7» 

EooTS fibrous, matted, somewhat spreading. 

Stem of scaly nodes, internodes none. 

Leaves radical, simple, exstipulate, peltately pal- 
mate-veined, wavy, deeply two-lobed, shut sinus at 
base ; petiole long, roimd, rather erect. 

INFLORESCENCE Solitary, on a smooth, naked scape. 

Flower. Calyx ; sepals 4, polysepalous, oblong : 
corolla; petals 8, polypetalous, regular, oblong, 
spreading : stamens 8 ; filaments threadlike, shorter 
than anther; anthers two-celled, oblong: pistil; 
carpels 2 ; style short ; stigma spreading, two-lobed. 



Fig. 248. 




PLANT DESCKIPTIOK, 137 



Description of Fig. 248. 

EooTS fibrous, growing from tlie entire under-side 
of the stem. 

Stem creeping below the ground. 

Leaf radical, petiolate, exstipulate, wavy-dentate, 
palmate-veined, slightly reniform, obtusely seven- 
lobed, sinuses rounded, nearly closed ; petiole half- 
round, channelled. 

Inflobescence solitary, on a smooth, slender 
scape. 

Flower. Calyx ; sepals 2, ovate, regular : 
COROLLA ; petals 8, polypetalous, regular, obovate- 
oblong, spreading : stamens many, shorter than the 
petals ; filaments short, threadlike ; anthers oblong, 
two-celled : pistil ; ovary oblong, of two carpels ; 
styles united in a column ; stigma two-lobed. 



PLANT DESCKIPTIOJST. 139 



Description of Fig. 249. 

EooTS fasciculated. 

Stem slender, weak, round, herbaceous, hairy. 

Leaves radical and cauline. Radical leaves, 
petiolate, exstipulate, entire, deeply twice ternately 
lobed ; petioles long, hairy. Cauline leaves sessile 
alternate, shaped like the radical leaves, but much 
smaller. 

Inflorescence solitary, terminal. 

Flowee. Calyx ; sepals 5, polysepalous, regu- 
lar, spreading : corolla ; petals 5, polypetalous, 
regular, oval, spreading : stamens many ; filaments 
threadlike ; anthers short, two-celled : pistil ; car- 
pels many ; styles very short or absent ; stigma 
inner and upper part of carpel or style. 



Fig. 250. 




PLAJ^T DESCKIPTIOJS^ 141 



Description of Fig. 250o 

KooTS moniliform. 

Stem erect, slender, herbaceous, round. 

Leaves radical and canline, ternately compound. 
Cauline leaves alternate ; leaflets lobed ; petioles 
spreading at base. 

Inflorescence solitary, terminal. 

Flower. Calyx ; sepals 5, polysepalous, regular, 
spreading, ovate : corolla ; petals^ none : stamens 
numerous ; filaments threadlike ; anthers oblong : 
PISTIL ; carpels many ; stigma sessile on the upper, 
inner face of carpel. 



LEAF SCHEDULES. 



ScHEDrLE One. 
Page 19, Exercises /., //., ///., IV., and V. 



Parts? 



Venation \ 



Schedule Two. 
See Page 2T, Exercise VI. 




Schedule Theee. 
See Page 30, Exercise VII 



i 
Parts ? 


Venation ? 




Margin ? 




Base? 





144: 



LEAF SCHEDULES. 



Schedule Fotje. 
See Page 32, Exercise VIIL 



Parts? 


'1 

j 

1 
j 


Yenation ? 


j 


Margin ? 


, - ] 


Base ? 




Apex? 





Schedule Five. 
See Page 34, Exercise IX. 



Parts ? 




Venation ? 




Margin ? 




Base ? 




Apex ? 




Lobes ? 





LEAF SCHEDULES. 



145 



Schedule Six. 
See Page 36, Exercise X. 



Parts ? 




Venation ? 




Margin ? 




Base? 




Apex? 




Lobes ? 




Sinuses ? 





Schedule Seven. 
/9'^6 Page 38, Exercises XL and XII. 



Kind? 




Yenation ? 




Margin ? 




Base? 





146 



LEAF SCHEDULES. 



Schedule Seven. — {Continued,) 



Apex? 




Lobes ? 




Sinuses ? 




Shape ? 





Schedule Eight. 

See Page 44, Exercises XIIL and XIV, 



Kind ? 




Venation ? 




Margin ? 




Base? 




Apex? 




Lobes ? 




Sinuses ? 

1 




Shape ? 





LEAF SCHEDULES. 



147 



Schedule Eight. — {Continued.) 



Petiole ? 




Color? 




Surface ? 





Schedule Nine, 
See Page 50, Exercise XV, 



Parts? 




No. of Leaflets? 





Schedule Ten. 
See Page 51, Exercise XVI. 



Parts? 




No. of Leaflets ? 


Kind? 





148 



STEM SCHEDULES. 



Schedule Eleven. 
See Page 56, Exercises XVIL and XVIIL 



Parts ? 




No. Leaflets ? 




Kind ? 




Variety ? 





-♦♦4- 



STEM SCHEDULES. 



Schedule Twelve. 
See Page 63, Exercises XXL and XXII, 



Parts? 




Appendages ? 





Leae.- 



STEM SCHEDULES. 

Schedule Thirteen. 
See Page 65, Exercise XXIII, 



149 



Appendages? 




Leaf-position ? 





Leaf. 



Schedule Fifteen. 
See Page 68, Exercise XXIV. 



Appendages ? 




Leaf-position ? 




Leaf-arrangement ? 





Leaf. — 



Schedule Sixteen. 
See Page 70, Exercise XXV. 



Appendages ? 




Leaf-position ? 




Leaf- arrangement ? 


Shape ? 





Leaf.- 



150 



STEM SCHEDULES. 



Schedule Seyenteen. 
See Page 74, Exercise XXVI. 



Appendages ? 




Leaf-position ? \ 


Leaf-arrangement? \ 


Shape? 


1 
Attitude ? 



Leaf. 



Schedule Eighteen. 

See Page 75, Exercise XXVIL 



Appendages ? 




Leaf-position ? 




Leaf-arrangement ? 




Shape ? 




Attitude ? 




Color ? 





INFLORESCENCE SCHEDULES. 
Schedule Eighteen. — ( Continued.) 



151 



1 

Surface ? 




Size? 




Structure ? 





Leae.- 



INFLOEESCENOE SCHEDULES. 



Schedule Eighteen. 
See Page 81, Exercises XXVIIL, XXIX,, and XXX. 



Parts? 




Attitude ? 





Leaf. — 



Stem. — 



152 INFLORESCENCE SCHEDULES. 

Schedule Nineteen. 
See Page 86, Exercises XXXL and XXXIL 



Parts ? 




Attitude? 




Position ? 





Leaf." 
Stem.- 



Schedule Twenty. 
Page 89, Exercise XXXIIL 



Parts ? 




Attitude ? 




Position ? 




Kind? 





Leaf. — 



Stem.- 



INFLORESCENCE SCHEDULES. 

Schedule Twenty-one. 

See Page 95, Exercise XXXIV, 



153 



Parts? 




Attitude ? 


\. 


Position ? 




Kind? 




Variety ? 





Leaf. — 
Stem. — 



154 



FLOWER SCHEDULES. 



FLOWEE SCHEDULES. 



Schedule Twenty-two. 
See Page 98, Exercises XXXY,, XXX VZ, and XXXVIL 



Names of Parts. 


No. 




Calyx ? 






Corolla ? 







Leaf. — 
Stem. — 
Infloeescekce.- 



Schedule Twenty-theee. 
See Page 98, Exercises XXXV., XXXYL. and XXXVIL 



Names of Parts. 


No. 




Periantli ? 




1 



Leaf. — 
Stem. — 
Inflorescence.- 



FLOWER SCHEDULES. 

Schedule Twenty -foue. 
Bee Page 100, Exercises XXXVIIL and XXXIX. 



155 



Names of Parts. 


No. 


Description. 


Calyx? 






Corolla? 







Leaf. — 
Stem. — 
Infloeescence. — 



Schedule Twenty-five. 
See Page 102, Exercise XL. 



Names of Parts. 


No. 


Description. 


Calyx ? 






Corolla ? 







Leaf. — 
Stem. — 
Inflorescence. 



156 



FLOWER SCHEDULES. 

Schedule Twenty-six. 
See Page 102, Exercise XL. 



Names of Parts. 


No. 


Description. 


Perianth? 







Leaf. — 
Stem. — 
Inflorescence. — 



SOHEDTJLE TWENTY-SETEN. 

See Page 104, Exercise XLL 



Names of Parts. 


No. 


Description. 


Calyx? 






Corolla? 






Stamens ? 







Leaf. — 
Stem. — 
Inflorescence. 



FLOWER SCHEDULES. 

Schedule Twenty-eight. 
Bee Page 106, Exercises XLIL and XLIII. 



157 



Names of Parts. 


No. 


Description. 


Calyx? 






Corolla ? 






Stamens ? 






Pistil? 







Leaf. — 

Stem. — 
Inflorescence.—- 



IToTE. — This is the last form of schedule in the book. As 
the pupil passes on from exercise to exercise, he will be en- 
abled to add one feature after another to his descriptions ; but 
the mode of inserting these new points will not make any 
change in the form of the schedule. 



THE EDUCATIONAL CLAIMS OF BOTANY. 



It has been stated in the preface that the present work 
is the outgrowth of a desire to gain certain advantages in 
general mental culture, which can be only obtained by making 
Nature a more direct and prominent object of study in primary 
education than is now done. I have thought it desirable to 
present the reasons which have led to its preparation more 
fully than would be suitable in an introduction, and therefore 
place them at the close of the work. 

The subject of mind has various aspects ; that in which 
the teacher is chiefly concerned is its aspect of growth, I 
propose to consider the subject from this point of view ; to 
state, first, some of the essential conditions of mental unfold- 
ing ; then to show in what respects the prevailing school cul- 
ture fails to conform to them ; and, lastly, to point out how 
the subject of Botany, when properly pursued, is eminently 
suited to develop those forms of mental activity, the neglect of 
which is now the fundamental deficiency of popular education. 

Mind is a manifestation of life ; and mental growth is de- 
pendent upon bodily growth. In fact, these operations not 
only proceed together, but are governed by the same laws. 
As body, however, is something more tangible and definite 
than mind, and as material changes are more easily appre- 
hended than mental changes, it will be desirable to glance first 
at what takes place in the growth of the body. 

I. — ^HOW THE BODY GROWS. 

All living beings commence as germs. The germ is a little 
portion of matter that is uniform throughout, and is hence said 
to be Jiomogeneous.'^ 

* In the following statement two or three words will occur with which 



HOW THE BODY GROWS. 159 

The beginning of growth is a change in tne germ, by 
which it is separated into unlike parts. One portion becomes 
different from the rest, or is differentiated from it ; and then it 
is itself still further changed or differentiated into more unlike 
parts. In this way, from the diffused uniform mass, various 
tissues, structures, and organs gradually arise, which, in the 
course of growth, constantly become more diverse, complex, 
and heterogeneous. But, accompanying these changes, there is 
also a tendency to unity. It is by the assimilation of like 
with like that differences arise. Nourishment is drawn in 
from without, and then each part attracts to itself the particles 
that are like itself. Bone material is incorporated with bone, 
and nerve material with nerve ; so that each different part 
arises from the grouping together of similar constituents. 'This 
tendency to unity, by which each part is produced, and by 
which all the parts are wrought together into a mutually de- 
pendent whole, is termed integration ; and the combined ope- 
rations by which development is carried on constitute what is 
now known as Evolution. 

At birth, bodily development has been carried so far that 
the infant is capable of leading an independent life. Mental 
growth commences when the little creature begins to be acted 
upon by external agencies. An already-growing mechanism 
takes on a new kind of action in new circumstances, and body 
and mind now grow together. The development of mind de- 
pends upon certain properties of nervous matter by which it 
is capable of receiving, retaining, and combining impressions. 
An organism has been thus prepared, upon which the sur- 
rounding universe takes effect, and the growth of mind con- 
sists in the development of an internal consciousness in 
correspondence to the external order of the world. 

II. — HOW THE MIND GROWS. 

At birth we say the infant hnows nothing ; that is, it recog- 
nizes no thing. Though the senses produce perfect impres- 

some readers may be unfamiliar. But more precise thoughts require more 
precise terms to mark them ; and, as these terms are now established, their 
use here is admissible as well as advantageous. 



160 THE EDUCATIOXAL CLABIS OF BOTANY. 

sions from the first, yet these impressions are not distinguished 
from each other. This vague, indefinite, homogeneous sensi- 
bility or feeling may be called the germ-state of mind. As 
bodily growth begins in a change of the material germ, so 
mental growth begins in a change of feeling. This change of 
feeling is due to a change of external impressions upon the 
infant organism. Were there no changes of impression upon 
us, there could never be changes of feeling within us, and 
Icnowing would be impossible. If, for example, there were 
never an alteration of temperature, and a resulting change of 
impressions upon the nerves, we should be forever prevented 
from knowing any thing of heat. The first dawn of intelli- 
gence consists in changes of feeling by which differences begin 
to be recognized. Mind commences in this perception of dif- 
ferences ; it cannot be said that we know any thing of itself 
but only the differences between it and other things. And, as 
in bodily growth, so in mental growth, there is an assimilation 
of like with like, or a process of integration. From the very 
first, along with the perception of difference, there has been 
also a perception of likeness. The clock-stroke, when first 
heard, is felt simply as an impression differing from others that 
precede and succeed it in the consciousness ; but, when heard 
again, not only is there this recognition of difference, but it is 
perceived as liTce the clock-stroke which preceded it. This 
second impression is assimilated to the first, and, when a third 
arises, it also coalesces with the former like impressions. And 
so of all other sights, sounds, and touches. Under the influ- 
ence of constant changes of impression, and a constant assimi- 
lation of like with like, there arise, at first vague, and then dis- 
tinct unlikenesses among the feelings ; that is, sights begin to 
be distinguished from sounds, and sounds from touches, while, 
at the same time, differences begin to be perceived among the 
impressions of each sense. In this way, the consciousness, at 
first homogeneous, grows into diversity, or becomes more hetero- 
geneous^ while its separated or differentiated parts are termed 
ideas. 

Let us look into this a little more closely. When an infant 
opens its eyes for the first time upon the flame of a candle, for 



HOW THE ISIIND GROWS. 161 

example, an image is formed, an impression produced, and 
there is a change of feeling. But the flame is not known, be- 
cause there is as yet no idea. The trace left by the first im- 
pression is so faint that, when the light is removed, it is not 
remembered ; that is, it has not yet become a mental posses- 
sion. As the light, however, flashes into its eyes a great many 
times in a few weeks, each new impression is added to the 
trace of former impressions left in the nervous matter, and 
thus the impression deepens, until it becomes so strong as to 
remain when the candle is withdrawn. The idea therefore 
grows by exactly the same process as a bone grows ; that is, 
by the successive incorporation of like with like. By the in- 
tegration of a long series of similar impressions, one portion of 
consciousness thus becomes differentiated from the rest, and 
there emerges the idea of the flame. Time and repetition are 
therefore the indispensable conditions of the process.* 

Now^ when the candle is brought, the child recognizes or 
knows it ; that is, it perceives it to be lihe the whole series 
of impressions of the candle-flame formerly experienced. It 
knows it because the impression produced agrees with the idea. 
In this way, by numerous repetitions of impressions, the child's 
first ideas arise ; and, in this way, all objects are known. We 
know things, because, when we see, hear, touch, or taste them, 
the present impression spontaneously blends with like impres- 
sions before experienced. We know or recognize an external 
object not by the single impression it produces, but because 



* " The single taste of sugar, by repetition, impresses the mind more and 
more, and, by this circumstance, becomes gradually easier to retain in idea. 
The smell of a rose, in like manner, after a thousand repetitions, comes much 
nearer to an independent ideal persistence than after twenty repetitions. So 
it is with all the senses, high and low. Apart altogether from the association 
of two or more distinct seDsations, in a group or in a train, there is a fixing 
process going on with every individual sensation, rendering it more easy to 
retain when the original has passed away, and more vivid when by means of 
association it is afterward reproduced. This is one great part of the educa- 
tion of the senses. The simplest impression that can be made of taste, smell, 
touch, hearing, sight, needs repetition in order to endure of its own accord ; 
even in the most persistent sense— the sense of seeing — the impressions on 
the infant mind that do not stir a strong feeling will vanish as soon as the 
eye is turned some other ^^y^— Professor Bain. 



162 THE EDIJCATIONAL CLAIMS OF BOTANY. 

that impression revives a whole train or group of previous dis- 
criminations that are like or related to it ; while the number 
of those that are called up is the measure of our intelligence 
regarding it. If something is seen, heard, felt, or tasted, 
which links itself to no kindred idea, we say "we do not know 
it ; " if it partially agrees with an idea, or revives a few dis- 
criminations, we know something about it, and the completer 
the agreement the more perfect the knowledge. 

As to know a thing is to perceive its differences /rc^m other 
things, and its likeness to other things, it, is therefore strictly 
an act of classing. This is involved in every act of thought, 
for to recognize a thing is to classify its impression or idea 
with previous states of feeling. Classification, in all its aspects 
and applications, is but the putting together of things that are 
alike — the grouping of objects by their resemblances; and as 
to know a thing is to know that it is this or that^ to know 
what it is like and what it is unlike, we begin to classify as 
soon as we begin to think. When the child learns to know a 
tree, for example, he discriminates it from objects that differ 
from it, and identifies it with those that resemble it ; and this 
is simplj to class it as a tree. When he becomes more intelli- 
gent regarding it — when, for instance, he sees that it is an elm 
or an apple-tree — ^he simply perceives a larger number of char- 
acters of likeness and difference. 

How our degrees of knowledge resolve themselves into 
successive classifications has been well illustrated by Herbert 
Spencer. He says: "The same object may, according as the 
distance or the degree of light permits, be identified as a 
particular negro ; or, more generally, as a negro ; or, more 
generally still, as a man ; or, yet more generally, as some liv- 
ing creature ; or most generally, as a solid body ; in each of 
which cases the implication is, that the present impression is 
like a certain order of past impressions." 

In early infancy, when the mind is first making the ac- 
quaintance of outward things, mental growth consists essen- 
tially in the production of new ideas by repetition of sensa- 
tions, although such ideas never arise singly, but are always 
linked together in their origin. But, when a stock of ideas 



HOW THE MIOT) GEOWS. 163 

has been formed in this manner, the mental growth is mainly 
carried forward by new combinations among them. The sim- 
pler ideas once acquired, the development of intelligence con- 
sists largely in associating them in new relations and groups 
of relations. The perception of likeness and difference is the 
essential work that is going on all the time, but the compari- 
sons and discriminations are constantly becoming more exten- 
sive, more minute, and more accurate. A number of elemen- 
tary ideas thus become, as it were, fused or consolidated into 
one complex idea ; and, by a still further recognition of like- 
ness and difference, this is classed with a new group, and this 
again with still larger clusters of associated ideas. 

The conception of an orange, for example, is compounded 
of the elementary notions of color, form, size, roughness, re- 
sistance, weight, odor, and taste. These elements are all 
bound up in one complex idea. The idea of an apple, a pear, a 
peach, or a plum, is in each case made up of a different group 
of component ideas, while the notion of a basket of different 
fruits is a cluster of these groups of still higher complexity, 
but still represented in thought as one complex idea, the ele- 
ments of which are united by the relations of contrast and 
resemblance. Or, again, the child may begin with a large, 
vague idea, as a tree, for example, and then, as intelligence 
concerning it progresses, he decomposes it into its component 
ideas, as trunk, branches, leaves, roots, and these into still mi- 
nuter parts. There is a growing mental heterogeneity through 
the increasing perception of likeness and difference. Thus, as 
soon as ideas are formed, they begin to be used over and over, 
and this process is ever continued.* An old idea in a new re- 
lation or grouping has a new meaning — becomes a new fact or 



* Our reason consists in using an old fact in new circumstances, through 
tlie power of discerning the agreement ; this is a vast saving of the labor of 
acquisition ; a reduction of the number of original growths requisite for our 
education. When we have any thing new to leam, as a new piece of music, 
or a new proposition in Euclid, we fall back upon our previously-formed com- 
binations, musical or geometrical, so far as they will apply, and merely tack 
certain of them together in correspondence with the new case. The method 
of acquiring by patch-work sets in early, and predominates increasingly.— 
Bain. 



164 THE EDUCATIONAL CLAIMS OF BOTANY. 



I 



a new truth. The perception of new resemblances and of new 
differences gives rise to new groupings and new classings of 
. ideas, and thus the mind grows into a complex and highly- 
differentiated organism of intelligence, in which the internal 
order of thought-relations answers to the external order of re- 
lations among things. 

That which occurs at this earliest stage of mental growth 
is exactly what takes place in the wliole course of unfolding in- 
telligence. Simple as these operations may seem, and begun 
by the infant as soon as it is born, in their growing complexi- 
ties, they constitute the whole fabric of the intellect. What 
we term the " mental faculties " are not the ultimate elements 
of mind, but only different modes of the mental activity; and, 
as one law of growth evolves all the various organs and tis- 
sues of the bodily structure, so one law of growth evolves all 
the diversified " faculties " of the mental structure. Under 
psychological analysis, the operations of reason, judgment, 
imagination, calculation, and the acquisitions of the most 
advanced minds yield at last the same simple elements — 
the perceptions of likenesses and differences among things 
thought about ; while memory is simply the power of re- 
viving these distinctions in consciousness. Whatever the 
object of thought, to know in what respects it differs 
from all other things, and in what respects it resembles 
them, is to know all about it — ^is to exhaust the action 
of the intellect upon it. The way the child gets its early 
knowledge is the way all real knowledge is obtained. When 
it discovers the likeness between sugar, cake, and certain 
fruits, that is, when it integrates them in thought as sweety 
it is making just such an induction as Newton made in 
discovering the law of gravitation, which was but to dis- 
cover the likeness among celestial and terrestrial motions. 
And as with physical objects, so also with human actions. 
The child may run around the house and play with its toys ; 
it must not break things or play with the fire. Here, again, 
are relations of likeness and unlikeness, forming a basis 
of moral classification. The judge on the bench is con- 
stantly doing the same thing; that is, tracing out the like- 



EXTENT OF EARLY MENTAL GROWTH. 165 

nesses of given actions, and classing them as right or 
wrong.* 

Haying thus formed some idea of how mental growth 
takes place, let us now roughly note how far it proceeds in 
the first three or four years of childhood. 

III. — ^EXTENT OF EARLY MENTAL GROWTH. 

From the hour of birth, through all the waking moments, 
there pour in through the eye ever-varying impressions of light 
and color, from the dimness of twilight to the utmost solar 
refulgence, which are reproduced as a highly-diversified lumi- 
nous consciousness. Impressions of sound of all qualities and 
intensities, loud and faint, shrill and dull, harsh and musical, 
in endless succession, enter the ear, and give rise to a varied 
auditory consciousness. Ever-changing contrasts of touch 
acquaint the mind with hard things and soft, light and heavy, 
rough and smooth, round, angular, brittle, and flexible, and 
are wrought into a knowledge of things within reach. And 
so, also, with the senses of taste and smell. This multitude 
of contrasted impressions, representing the endless diversity 
of the surrounding world, has been organized into a connected 
and coherent body of knowledge. 

After two or three years the face that was at first blank 
becomes bright with the light of numberless recognitions. 
The child knows all the common objects of the house, the 
garden, and the street, and it not only knows them apart, but 
it has extended its discriminations of likeness and difference 
to a great many of their characters. It has found out about 
differences and resemblances of form, size, color, weight, trans- 
parency, plasticity, toughness, brittleness, fluidity, warmth, 
taste, and various other properties of the solid and liquid sub- 



* To tliose who care to pursue this important subject of mental growth, 
which is here hardly more than hinted at, I would recommend the "Princi- 
ples of Psychology," by Mr. Herbert Spencer, now being published in parts 
by D. Appleton & Co. Mr. Spencer considers mind from the point of view of 
Evolution, and his work is, beyond doubt, the most important contribution to 
this aspect of psychological science that has yet been made. I have to ac- 
knowledge my own indebtedness to it. 



166 THE EDUCATIONAL CLABIS OF BOTANY. 

stances of which it has had experience. It has noted peculi- 
arities among many animals and plants, and the distinctions, 
traits, and habits of persons. 

Besides this, it has learned to associate names with its 
ideas ; it has acquired a language. The number of words it 
uses to express things and actions, and qualities, degrees, and 
relations, among these things and actions, shows the extent to 
which its discriminations have been carried. Groups of ideas 
are integrated into trains of thought, and words into corre- 
sponding trains of sentences to communicate them. Nor is 
this all. There is still another order of acquisitions in which 
the child has made remarkable proficiency. The infant is 
endowed with a spontaneous activity: it moves, struggles, 
and throws about its limbs as soon as it is born. But its 
actions are at first aimless and confused. As it knows nothing, 
of course, it can do nothing ; but, with the growth of dis- 
tinct ideas and feelings, there is also a growth of special move- 
ments in connection with them. It has to find out by innu- 
merable trials how to creep, to walk, to hold things, and to 
feed itself. To see an object and to be able to seize it, or to 
go and get it, result from an adjustment of visual impres- 
sions mth muscular movements, which it has taken thousands 
of experiments to bring under control. The vocal apparatus 
has been brought under such marvellous command that hun- 
dreds of different words are uttered, each requiring a differ- 
ent combination of movements of the chest, larynx, tongue, 
and lips. Numerous aptitudes and dexterities are achieved, 
and, when, stimulated by curiosity, it examines its toy and 
breaks it open to find '' what makes it go," it has entered upon 
a career of active experiment, as truly as the man of science in 
his laboratory. 

IV. — ^nature's educational method. 
Such is Nature's method of education, and such its earliest 
results. Human beings are born into a world of stubborn 
realities; of laws that are fraught with life and death in 
their inflexible course. What the new-bom creature shall be 
taught is too important to be left to any contingency, and so 



nature's EDrCATIONAL METHOD. 167 

Nature takes in hand the early training of the whole human 
race, and secures that rudimentary knowledge of the proper- 
ties of things which is alike indispensable to all. It is, how- 
ever, only the obvious characters and simpler relations of 
objects which are thrust conspicuously upon the attention 
that are recognized in childhood. But the method of bringing 
out mind has been established. Nature's early tuition has 
given shape to the mental constitution, and determined the con- 
ditions and order of its future development. The child is sent 
to school — the school of expeflrience — as soon as it is born, and 
Nature's method of leading out the intelligence is that of 
growth. She roots mental activity in organic processes, and 
thus times the rate of acquisition to the march of organic 
changes. She is never in haste, but always at work ; never 
crams, but ever repeats, assimilates, and organizes. Her policy 
of producing vast effects by simple means is not departed from 
in the realm of mind ; indeed, it is more marvellous here than 
anywhere else. While the organic world is made up almost en- 
tirely of but four chemical elements, the intellectual world is 
constituted wholly of but two ultimate elements, the percep- 
tion of likeness and the perception of difference among ob- 
jects of thought. These elements are wrought into the mental 
constitution through the direct observation and experience of 
things. Mind is called forth by the spontaneous interaction 
of the growing organism and the agencies and objects of sur- 
rounding Nature. 

The school-period at length arrives, and Art comes forward 
to assume the direction of processes that Nature has thus 
far conducted. But her course is plainly mapped out; 
the work begun is to be continued. New helps and re- 
sources may be needed, but the end and the essential means 
should be the same. Mental growth is to be carried by cul- 
tivation to still higher stages, but by the same processes 
hitherto employed. The discriminations of likeness and dif- 
ference by which all things are known, the comparison, classi- 
fication, and association of ideas in which knowledge arises, 
are to become more accurate, more extensive, and more sys- 
tematic. To do this the mind is to be maintained in living 



168 THE EDUCATIONAL CLAIMS OF BOTANY. 

contact with the realities which environ it, but which are now 
to be regularly studied. We have here the clear criterion by 
which educational systems must be judged ; how does the pre- 
vailing practice answer to the test ? 

v. — DEFICIENCY OF EXISTING SCHOOL-METHODS. 

Nothing is more obvious than that the child^s entrance 
upon school-life, instead of being the wise continuation of pro- 
cesses already begun, is usually an abrupt transition to a new, 
artificial, and totally different sphere of mental experience. 
Although, in the previous period, it has learned more than it 
ever will again in the same time, and learned it according to 
the fundamental laws of growing intelligence, yet the current 
notion is, that education legins with the child's entrance upon 
school-life. How erroneous this is we have suflSciently seen. 
That which does begin at this time is not education^ but simply 
the acquirement of new helps to it. The first thing at school 
is usually the study of words, spelling, reading, and writing — 
that is, to get the use of written language. This is, of course, 
important and indispensable. To be able to accumulate, com- 
pare, arrange, and preserve ideas, and put them to their largest 
uses, it is necessary to mark them. Words are these marks or 
signs of ideas, and, as such, have an inestimable value. Words, 
as the marks of ideas, are the representatives of knowledge, 
and books which contain them become the invaluable de- 
positories of the world's accumulating thought. It is ex- 
actly because of their great importance and their intimate 
relations to our intellectual life, that we should be always 
vividly conscious of their exact nature and ofiSce. 

But words are not ideas, they are only the symbols of ideas ; 
language is not knowledge, but the representative of it. Labels 
have a value of convenience, which depends upon the intrin- 
sic value of what they point out. Now, there is a constant 
and insidious tendency in education to invert these relations — 
to exalt the husk above its contents, the tools above their work, 
the label above its object, words above the things for which 
they stand. The means of culture thus become the ends of 



DEFICIENCY OF EXISTING SCHOOL-METHODS. 169 

culture, aud education is emptied of its substantial purpose. 
In the lower institutions, wliile that acquisition and organiza- 
tion of ideas in which education really consists are neglected, 
to spell accurately, to read fluently, to define promptly, and to 
write neatly, are the ideals of school-room accomplishment. In 
the higher institutions, this ideal expands into the proficient 
command of a multitude of words, and skill in the arts of ex- 
pression, so that the student piles language upon language 
imtil he has tagged half a dozen labels to each of his scanty, 
and ill-conceived ideas. 

The glaring deficiency of our popular systems of instruc- 
tion is, that words are not subordinated to their real purposes, 
but are permitted to usurp that supreme attention which 
should be given to the formation of ideas by the study of 
things. It is at this point that true mental growth is checked, 
and the minds of children are switched off from the main line of 
natural development into a course of artificial acquisition, in 
which the semblance of knowledge takes the place of the real- 
ity of knowledge. 

We have seen that the growth of mind results from the 
exercise of its powers upon the direct objects of experience, 
and consists in its recognition of distinctions among the prop- 
erties and relations of things, and in the classing and organ- 
ization of ideas thus acquired. These operations can be 
facilitated by the use of words and books, but only when the 
ideas themselves are first clearly conceived as the accurate 
representations of things. But the ordinary word-studies of 
our schools, which are truly designed to assist these opera- 
tions, are actually made to exclude them. The child glides 
into the habit of accepting words for ideas, and thus evades 
those mental actions which are only to be performed upon the 
ideas themselves. 

The existing systems of instruction are therefore deficient, 
by making no adequate provision for cultivating the growth 
of ideas by the exercise of the observing powers of children. 
Observation, the capacity of recognizing distinctions, and of 
being mentally alive to the objects and actions around us, is 
only to be acquired by practice, and therefore requires to be- 



170 THE educatio:n^al claims of botany. 

come a regular and habitual mental exercise, and to have a 
fundamental place in education. 

The importance of training the young mind to habits of 
correct observation, to form judgments of things noted, and 
to describe correctly the results of observation, can hardly be 
over-estimated. It has been well remarked that, " without 
an accurate acquaintance with the visible and tangible proper- 
ties of things, our conceptions must be erroneous, our infer- 
ences fallacious, and our operations unsuccessful. The educa- 
tion of the senses neglected, all after-education partakes of a 
drowsiness, a haziness, an insufficiency, which it is impossible 
to cure. Indeed, if we consider it, we shall find that exhaust- 
ive observation is an element of all great success. It is not to 
artists, naturalists, and men of science only, that it is needful ; 
it is not only that the skilful physician depends on it for the 
correctness of his diagnosis, and that to the good engineer it 
is so important, that some years in the workshop are prescribed 
for him ; but we may see that the philosopher also is funda- 
mentally one who observes relationships of things which others 
had overlooked, and that the poet, too, is one who sees the fine 
facts in Nature which all recognize when pointed out, but did 
not before remark. Nothing requires more to be insisted on 
than that vivid and complete impressions are all-essential. 
No sound fabric of wisdom can be woven out of a rotten, raw 
material." 

It needs hardly to be repeated that observation is the start- 
ing-point of knowledge, and the basis of judgment and induc- 
tive reasoning. In the chaos of opinions among men, the con- 
flicts are usually on the data^ which have not been observed 
with sufficient care. Dispute is endless until the facts are 
known, and, when this happens, dispute is generally ended. 
Dr. Cullen, long ago, remarked : " There are more false facts 
in the world than false hypotheses to explain them ; there is, 
in truth, nothing that men seem to admit so lightly as an 
asserted fact." 

Children should, therefore, be taught to see for themselves, 
and to think for themselves on the basis of what they have 
seen. In this way only can they learn to weigh the true value 



II 



DEFICIENCY OF EXISTESTG SCHOOL-METHODS. lYl 

of evidence, and to guard against that carelessness of assump- 
tion and that credulous confidence in the loose statements 
of others, which is one of the gross mental deficiencies we 
eyery where encounter. This is one of the rights of the under- 
standing too little respected in the school-room. Instead of 
being called into independent activity, children's minds are 
rather repressed by authority. In the whole system of word- 
teaching the statements have to be taken on trust. " This is the 
rule," and "that the usage," and the say-so of book and teacher 
is final. Granted that much, at any rate, in education is to be 
accepted on authority, it is all the more necessary that there 
should be, in some departments, such an assiduous cultivation 
of personal observation and independent judgment as may 
serve to guard against errors from this source. 

It may be said that arithmetic forms an exception to what 
is here stated respecting the prevalence of authority in schools, 
as its operations are capable of independent proof. This is 
true, but the exception is of such a nature that it cannot serve 
as a correction; for it reasons not from observed facts, but from 
assumed numerical data. Mathematics, says Prof. Huxley, '' is 
that study which knows nothing of observation, nothing of 
induction, nothing of experiment, nothing of causation." 

The foregoing strictures, I am aware, have a variable appli- 
cability to different schools. Many teachers are alive to these 
evils, and strive in various ways to mitigate them ; but the 
statement, nevertheless, holds sadly true in its general applica- 
tion. There is a radical deficiency of existing educational 
methods which cannot be supplied by the mere make-shift in- 
genuity of instructors, but requires some systematic and effec- 
tual measure of relief. 

YI. — WHAT IS NOW MOST NEEDED. 

To supply this unquestionable deficiency, we should de- 
mand the introduction into primary education, in addition to 
reading, writing, and arithmetic, of A fourth fundamental 

BRANCH OF STUDY, WHICH SHALL AFFORD A SYSTEMATIC TRAIN- 
ING OF THE OBSERYiNG POWERS. We are entitled to require 
that, when the child enters school, it shall not take leave of the 



172 THE EDUCATIOJSTAL CLAIMS OF BOTANY. 

universe of fact and law, but that its mind shall be kept in 
intimate relation with Nature in some one of her great divis- 
ions, and that the knowledge acquired shall be actual and 
thorough, and suited to call out those operations which are 
essential to higher mental growth. It is agreed by many of the 
ablest thinkers that such an element of mental training is now 
the urgent want of general education. Dr. Whewell thus de- 
fines the present need : 

*' One obvious mode of effecting this discipline of the mind is the 
exact and solid study of some portion of inductive knowledge. . . . 
botany, comparative anatomy, geology, chemistry, for instance. But I 
say, the exact and solid knowledge ; not a mere verbal knowledge, but a 
knowledge which is real in its character, though it may be elementary 
and limited in its extent. The knowledge of which I speak must be a 
knowledge of things, and not merely of names of things ; an acquaint- 
ance with the operations and productions of Nature as they appear to 
the eye ; not merely an acquaintance with what has been said about 
them ; a knowledge of the laws of Nature, seen in special experiments 
and observations before they are conceived in general terms ; a knowl- 
edge of the types of natural forms, gathered from individual cases 
already familiar. By such study of one or more departments of induc- 
tive knowledge, the mind may escape from the thraldom and illusion 
which reigns in the world of mere words." 

The increasing influence of science over the course of 
the world's alFairs is undeniable. Not only has it already 
become a controlling force in civilization, but it is steadily 
invading the higher spheres of thought, and, by its constant 
revisions and extensions of knowledge, it is rapidly reshaping 
the opinion of the world. That such an agency is destined to 
exert a powerful influence upon the culture of the human 
mind, is inevitable. Already, indeed, it has become a recog- 
nized element of general instruction, but it has been pursued 
in such a fragmentary and incoherent way, that its legitimate 
mental influence is far from having been realized. The im- 
mediate problem, then, is how to organize the scientific ele- 
ment of study so as to gain its benefits, as a mental discipline. 
Each of the prominent sciences — physics, chemistry, geology, 
botany — has its special advantages, and is entitled to a place 
in a liberal course of study. But some one must be selected 



WHAT IS NOW MOST NEEDED. 173 

which is best fitted to be generally introduced into primary 
schools. The work must begin here, if it is to be thoroughly 
done. 

The system of teaching by object-lessons is an attempt to 
meet the present requirement in the sphere of primary educa- 
tion. But these efforts have been rather well-intentioned grop- 
ings after a desirable result than satisfactory realizations of it. 
The method is theoretically correct, and some benefit cannot 
fail to have resulted ; but the practice has proved incoherent, 
desultory, and totally insufficient as a training of the observing 
powers. Kor can this be otherwise so long as all sorts of ob- 
jects are made to serve as " lessons," while the exercises con- 
sist merely in learning a few obvious and unrelated characters. 
Although, in infancy, objects are presented at random, yet, if 
mental growth is to be definitely directed, they must be present- 
ed in relation. A lesson one day on a bone, the next on a piece 
of lead, and the next on a flower, may be excellent for impart- 
ing '' information," but the lack of relation among these ob- 
jects unfits them to be employed for developing connected and 
dependent thought. This teaching can be thoroughly success- 
ful only where the "objects" studied are connected together in 
a large, complex whole, as a part of the order of Nature. The 
elementary details must be such as children can readily appre- 
hend, while the characters and relations are so varied and nu- 
merous as to permit an extended course of acquisition issuing 
in a large body of scientific principles. Only in a field so broad 
and inexhaustible as to give play to the mental activities in 
their continuous expansion can object-studies have that real 
disciplinary influence which is now so desirable an element of 
popular education. 

What we most urgently need is an objective course of 
study which shall train the observing powers as mathematics 
trains the power of calculation. From the time the child be- 
gins to count, until the man has mastered the calculus, there 
is provided an unbroken series of exercises of ever-increasing 
complexity, suited to unfold the mathematical faculty. We 
want a parallel course of objective exercises, not to be dis- 
patched in a term or a year, but running through the whole 



174 THE EDUCATIOISrAL CLAIMS OF BOTANY. 

period of education, which shall give the observing and induc- 
tive faculties a corresponding continuous and systematic un- 
folding. What subject is best fitted for this purpose ? 

VII. — ADVANTAGES OFFERED BY BOTANY. 

The largest number of advantages for the purpose we have 
in view will be found combined in that branch of natural his- 
tory which treats of the vegetable kingdom. While each of 
the sciences has its special claim as a subject of study, it is 
thought that none of them can compare with Botany in ful- 
filling the various conditions now indicated, and which entitle 
it to take a regular and fundamental place in our scheme of 
common-school instruction. Its prominent claims are : 

I. The materials furnished by the vegetable kingdom for 
direct observation and practical study are abundant, and easily 
accessible, overhead, underfoot, and all around — grass, weeds, 
flowers, trees — open and common to everybody. There is 
no expense, as in experimental science. And, in meeting this 
fundamental condition of a universal objective study, it may 
be claimed that Botany is without a rival. 

II. The collection of specimens may be carried on as regu- 
larly as any other school-exercise, while they are just as suit- 
able objects upon the scholar's desk as the books themselves. 
They cannot interfere with the order and propriety of the 
class-room. 

III. The elementary facts of Botany are so simple, that their 
study can be commenced in early childhood, and so numerous 
as to sustain a prolonged course of observation. The characters 
of plants which engage attention at this period of acquisition 
are external, requiring neither magnifying-glass nor dissecting- 
knife to find them. 

lY. From these rudimentary facts the pupil may proceed 
gradually to the more complex, from the concrete to the ab- 
stract — ^from observations to the truths that rest upon observa- 
tion, in a natural order of ascent, as required by the laws of 
mental growth. If properly commenced, the study may be 
stopped at any stage, and the advantages gained are substan- 



ADVANTAGES OFFERED BY BOTAIsrY. 175 

tial and valuable, while, at the same time, it is capable of task- 
ing the highest intelligence through a lifetime of study. 

V. The means are thus furnished for organizing object- 
teaching into a systematic method, so that it may be pursued 
definitely and constantly through a course of successively 
higher and more comprehensive exercises. 

YI. Botany is unrivalled in the scope it offers to the culti- 
vation of the descriptive powers, as its vocabulary is more co- 
pious, precise, and well-settled than that of any other of the 
natural sciences. Upon this point — most important in its edu- 
cational aspect — ^Prof. Arthur Henfrey has well remarked : 

" The technical language of Botany, as elaborated by Linnaeus and 
his school, has long been the admiration of logical and philosophical 
writers, and has been carried to great perfection. Every word has its 
definition, and can convey one notion to those who have once mastered 
the language. The technicalities, therefore, of botanical language, 
which are vulgarly regarded as imperfections, and as repulsive to the 
inquirer, are, in reality, the very marks of its completeness, and, far 
from ojffering a reason for withholding the science from ordinary educa- 
tion, constitute its great recommendation as a method of training in 
accuracy of expression and habits of describing definitely and unequivo- 
cally the observations made by the senses. The acquisition of the terms 
applied to the different parts of plants exercises the memory, while the 
mastery of the use of the adjectives of terminology cultivates, in a most 
beneficial manner, a habit of accuracy and perspicuity in the use of 



Botanical language is the most perfect that is applied to 
the description of external nature, but its accuracy is not the 
accuracy of geometry, the terms of which call up the same 
sharply-defined invariable conceptions. But the characters of 
natural objects are not such rigid and exact repetitions of each 
other. Nature is constantly varying her types. The applica- 
tion of botanical terms is, therefore, not a mere mechanical act 
of the mind, but involves the exercise of judgment. 

yn. It is congenial with the pleasurable activity of child- 
hood, and makes that activity subservient to mental ends. 
It enforces rambles and excursions in quest of specimens, 
and thus tends to relieve the sedentary confinement of the 



176 THE EDUCATIONAL CLAIMS OF BOTANY. 

school-room, and to promote health by moderate open-air 
exercise. 

YIII. The knowledge it imparts has a practical value in 
various important directions. It is indispensable to the intel- 
ligent pursuit of agriculture and horticulture — avocations in 
which more people are occupied and interested than in all 
others put together. 

IX. The study of plant-forms opens to us a world of grace, 
harmony, and beauty, that is not without influence upon the 
aesthetic feelings, and the appreciation of art. Intimately in- 
volved as is the vegetable kingdom with the ever-changing 
aspects of Nature, it is well fitted to attract the mind to the 
fine features of scenery, and the grand effects of the natural 
world. 

X. Knowledge of this subject is a source of pure and un- 
failing personal enjoyment. Its objects constantly invite atten- 
tion, and vary more or less with each locality, so that the 
botanical student is always at home, and is always solicited by 
something fresh and attractive; 

XI. The pursuit of Botany to its finer facts and subtler reve- 
lations involves the mastery of the microscope — one of the most 
delicate and powerful of all instruments of observation. It 
also opens the field of experiment, and affords opportunity for 
cultivating manipulatory processes. 

XII. Notwithstanding the superficial prejudice against Bot- 
any, as a kind of light, fancy subject, dealing with flowers — an 
" accomplishment " of girls — it is nevertheless a solid and noble 
branch of knowledge. It has intimate connections with all the 
other sciences — physics, chemistry, geology, meterology, and 
physical geography — helps them all, and is helped by all. It 
treats of the phenomena of organization, and is the proper in- 
troduction to the great subject of Biology — the science of the 
general laws of life. 

These considerations show that, for the purpose we have in 
view — the introduction of a subject into education which shall 
extend through all its grades, and afford a methodical disci- 
pline in the study of things — Botany has eminent, if not unri- 
valled claims to the attention of educators, 



DEFECTS OF COMMON BOTANICAL STUDY. 177 



YIII. — DEFECTS OF COMMON BOTANICAL STUDY. 

But the benefits here sought are not to be gained by the 
usual way of dealing with the subject. For this end it must 
be pursued by the direct study of its objects, and in a definite 
order. The concrete and elementary character of plants must 
be made familiar before the truths based upon them can 
become real mental possessions. The common method of 
acquiring Botany, in its results^ that is, by going at once to 
its general principles, is hence peculiarly futile for purposes of 
education. The mere reading up of vegetable physiology is 
no better than getting any other second-hand information. To 
learn a number of hard botanical terms without really know- 
ing what they represent, or to con over classifications that are 
equally void of significance, is much the same as any other 
verbal cramming. The objection to ordinary botanical study is, 
not that the books do not tell the pupil a great many interesting 
and useful things about plants, but that he studies it as he 
does ancient history, treating its objects as if they had all gone 
to dust thousands of years ago. 

Besides, that which goes under the name in many of our 
schools is not Botany in any true sense ; it is only a 'branch of it. 
In the early part of the century, the subject had become so 
overgrown with the mere pedantries of naming, that there 
came a reaction against systematic Botany, or the study of the 
relationships of plants, and some went so far as to insist that 
the whole science could be " evolved " by studying a single 
plant. Under the influence of this tendency, Botany became 
merged in the study of vegetable physiology to the neglect of 
its descriptive and relational elements. But it is now recog- 
nized that all parts of the science are intimately correlated, and 
that the inner relations of plants can only be well understood 
by first getting a knowledge of their outer relations. Never- 
theless, the tendency to sink it in mere physiology was strongly 
felt in education, which instinctively seized upon a view of 
the subject most easily got through books. But vegetable 
physiology is not Botany any more than the rule of three is 
arithmetic ; and to engage with the body of generalized truths, 



178 THE EDUCATIONAL CLAIMS OF BOTANY. 

which make up the higher parts of the science, before first 
roasteriiig Descriptive Botany, is like attacking the higher 
problems of arithmetic before learning its simple rules. 

Nor is the case much helped by that casual inspection of 
specimens in which students sometimes indulge. To pick a 
flower to pieces now and then, or to identify a few plants 
by the aid of glossaries and analytical tables, and to press 
and label them, are, no doubt, useful operations, but they are 
far from answering the educational purposes here contem- 
plated. 

IX. — AIMS OF THE PEESENT WORK. 

In the preparation of the present work, the end kept strictly 
in view has been to make it conform to the laws of mental 
growth. Although it attempts to make a beginning only, yet 
it claims to begin right — to teach Botany as it should be 
taught, and, in so doing, to cultivate systematically those 
parts of the mind which general education most neglects. It 
is adapted to these purposes in the following respects : 

In the first place it conforms to the method of Nature by 
making actual phenomena the objects of thought. It con- 
tinues the direct intercourse of the mind with things, by 
selecting that portion of the natural world which seems best 
adapted for the purpose, and providing for its direct and 
regular study. It is a merit of the plan that it permits no 
evasion of this purpose, but compels attention to the objects 
selected. There are no lessons to " commit and recite ; " the 
child's proper work being to observe, distinguish, compare, 
and describe ; and thus, from the outset, it is exercising its 
own faculties in the organization of real knowledge. 

In the second place, the present plan implies that habits 
of regular observation shall be commenced early. This is on 
various accounts a most important feature. The child should 
begin to be taught Jiow to notice, and what to look for, be- 
cause it is already spontaneously engaged in the work, and 
needs guidance. While its mental life is (so to speak) external, 
and it hungers for changing impressions and new sensations, 
is certainly the time to foster and direct this activity. It is 



AIMS OF THE PRESENT WORK. 1Y9 

necessary to furnish abundant and varied materials for simple 
observation in this impressible sensational stage of mental 
growth, when, as yet, only rudimentary details can be appre- 
ciated. At this time they can be rapidly acquired and easily 
remembered, while, as the mind advances to the reflective 
stage, unless the habit of observation has been formed, atten- 
tion to details becomes tedious and irksome. 

It is sometimes said that it is absurd to attempt teaching 
children " science " before twelve or fourteen years of age ; and, 
if it be meant the memorizing of the principles and results 
of science, the remark is true. But it is not true if applied to 
the early observation of those simple facts which lead up to 
scientific principles. Nature settles all that by putting chil- 
dren to the study of the properties of natural objects as soon 
as they are bom. The germ of science is involved in its 
earliest discriminations. When the child first distinguishes 
its father from its mother, it is doing the same thing that 
Leverrier did in distinguishing Neptune from a fixed star ; the 
difference is only one of degree. In putting children early to 
the work of observation, as is provided for in this little 
work, we are, therefore, only continuing a course already 
entered upon, and which involves the most natural and con- 
genial action of the childish mind. 

Another reason why children should commence the study 
of objects early is, that the lidhit may be formed before the 
mind acquires a bent in other directions ; is, because to post- 
pone it is to defeat it. As education is supposed to begin 
when school begins, and to consist mainly in learning lessons, 
children quickly get the notion that nothing is properly " edu- 
cation " that does not come from books. But the difficulty here 
is deeper still. The habit of lesson-learning, of passively load- 
ing the memory with verbal acquisitions, is so totally different 
a form of mental action from observing, inquiring, finding things 
out, and judging independently about them, that the former 
method tends powerfully to hinder and exclude the latter. I 
have found, in my own experience, that the younger children 
took to exercises in observation with freedom, and zest, while 
their elders, in proportion to their school proficiency, had to 



180 THE EDUCATIOlSrAL CLAIMS OF BOTANY. 

overcome somethiiig of both disinclination and disqualification 
for the work. 

In the third place, the plan of study here proposed recog- 
nizes the importance in education of the element of time. The 
very conception of mental unfolding as a groicth implies, as we 
have seen, an orderly succession of natural processes to which 
time is an indispensable condition. Ideas are not only to be 
obtained by observation, but they are to be organized into 
knowledge. That this may be done effectually, so that acquisi- 
tions shall be lasting, it must be done slowly and by numberless 
repetitions. The plan of this First Book complies with this 
condition by such a construction of the exercises as will secure 
constant repetition and a thorough assimilation of observations. 

It complies with the time-requirement in another respect 
also : it is but Sijlrst step, and involves many succeeding steps. 
The mind grows, let it be remembered, for twenty or thirty 
years, passing through successive phases, id which now one 
form of mental action predomiaates, and now another. Every 
study, which aims to cultivate any class of mental activities up 
to the point of discipline, must extend through a considerable 
part of this period. This is well understood with respect to 
mathematics and Latin ; they run through from the ages of seven 
or eight years to college graduation; while three months is 
the usual collegiate allowance of time for Botany. As the 
true mode of treating the subject, both on its own account and 
for educational purposes, requires that it be pursued in a 
definite order through the whole school career, I have here 
conformed to that condition by presenting only the first rudi- 
mentary instalment of the subject. 

Fourthly and finally, the mode of study here proposed is 
specially suited to call forth those operations in which grow- 
ing intelligence consists, 

A child old enough to begin the study of Botany has 
already acquired a large stock of ideas of concrete things and 
their relations. As concerns plants, it has probably discrimi- 
nated between leaves, flowers, stems, and roots. Its idea of a 
leaf, for instance, though loose and indefinite, is still roughly 
correct. The thin, green plate contrasts strongly with the 



ii 



AIMS OF THE PRESENT WORK. 181 

other parts of the plant. Its differences from flowers and stems 
enable the mind readily to differentiate it in idea, while the 
essential resemblances of leaves of all kinds make their inte- 
gration into one general conception inevitable. 

Our primar}^ scholar, then, starting at the level of ordinary 
perception,' is to increase his discriminative power. He must 
learn to discover minuter differences and resemblances, and to 
make his ideas more definite and precise. To this end he 
enters upon the first exercises of this work, and begins a care- 
ful inspection of leaves. He soon finds that they vary consid- 
erably ; that their most conspicuous feature — that which he 
has hitherto regarded as the entire leaf— iormB^ in most cases, 
but one part of the leaf. Having gained a clear idea of this 
part, he marks his conception of it by a sign which he finds to 
be the word Made. Another part, almost always present, he 
distinguishes as the leaf-stem, and names it the petiole; and 
still another part, probably never before noticed, he learns to 
recognize as the stipules. 

He thus begins with the recognition of simple differences, 
the idea of the leaf being resolved into three component ideas. 
But each of these component ideas is crude from lack of obser- 
vation of the varying forms of different blades, petioles, and 
stipules. Observation is now extended to new specimens, and 
as it goes forward new differences are perceived among these 
parts. The blade turns out to be composed of different ele- 
ments. Its framework is differentiated from its soft, pulpy 
covering, receives its name, and then tJiis part opens a new 
field of observation in recognizing and comparing the different 
modes and variations of the venation^ as it is called. 

In this way there grows up an intelligent conception of the 
leaf. Its idea, at first vague and homogeneous, by successive 
discriminations of differences and resemblances has become 
definite and heterogeneous. The conception, at first simple, 
is now complex, but it is an orderly complexity, in which the 
parts of the object, with the relations of those parts, are dis- 
tinctly possessed in thought. After a month of observation 
so conducted, in which numerous specimens are observed and 
compared, and their peculiarities noted and named, the pnpil 



182 THE EDUCATIONAL CLAIMS OF BOTANY. 

will have begun to acquire some facility in observing and de- 
scribing, and will have gained a good deal of knowledge oi 
this elementary portion of the subject. 

Having gone over simple and compound leaves, he next 
passes to the examination of the stem. Here, also, his first 
notion is simple and indefinite, but, when a good many have 
been noticed, marked dift'erences of appearance present them- 
selves, and stems begin to fall into groups, which he describes 
as round, square, erect, trailing, creeping, etc., as the case may 
be ; while closer observation reveals still minuter characters of 
difference and resemblance among them. Inflorescence, flow- 
ers, and roots, are successively studied in the same manner. 

Beginning thus with the rudimentary characters of the 
simplest parts, the child proceeds step by step, until he be- 
comes acquainted with the leading characters of the plant as a 
whole, while the faculties drawn out, and the work of drawing 
them out, conform to the first conditions of unfolding intelli- 
gence. A multitude of accurate botanical ideas have been ob- 
tained of the endless diversities of feature and form in the 
vegetable world, but they do not lie as a burden of details in 
the memory ; they have been arranged into organized knowl- 
edge. Particular facts are gradually fused into general con- 
ceptions ; each new peculiarity observed is a discrimination of 
difference or likeness which links itself to previous concep- 
tion. The simplest ideas are at first associated in minor 
groups, and soon reappear in larger groupings and relations, 
until at length the whole plant has been reproduced in the 
mind as a highly complex organism of thought-relations — the 
mental representation being as truly a product of growth as 
the living object itself. 

It has been explained that the first and simplest thinking 
involves the rudimentary act of classing. Botanical study, pur- 
sued in the direct way here practised, is specially fitted to cul- 
tivate this form of mental exercise, as Botany is eminently a 
classificatory science. Beginning with the simplest discrimi- 
nations and comparisons, the pupil has arranged the characters 
observed into groups in accordance with their resemblances. 
As he becomes able to grasp in thought these assemblages of 






ABIS OF THE PRESENT WORK. 183 

characters, and to discern remoter relations of likeness, the 
classification is carried further, and he is thus gradually pre- 
pared to go on and trace out those larger and more complex 
relationships of difference and resemblance by comparison of 
all the characters of plants, which lead to the complete classi- 
fication of the vegetable kingdom on the natural system. 

This mode of mental acquisition has also enforced a salu- 
tary training in the use of language. Words are used with 
more clearness and reality of meaning, and, instead of rehears- 
ing what others have observed, he learns to describe what he 
has seen and knows himself. In this way he goes 'behind the 
words to the ideas, and things they symbolize, and can better 
appreciate both their value and their imperfection as signs. 
For example, upon first noting a plant character, he con- 
fidently applies a term to it ; but, upon looking further, he 
perhaps fails to find the exact repetition of it, and doubt may 
arise about its new application. He soon discerns that Nature's 
plan is not that of sharp lines of distinction, but that she 
rather ^i/?s from character to character in ceaseless continuity, 
and never exactly repeats herself. Words are therefore no 
longer to be accepted as the absolute equivalents of things ; they 
cannot represent the delicate shadings and the infinite variety 
of nature and of thought ; they are but imperfect signs, fre- 
quently liable to mislead, and therefore demanding judgment 
in their use. 

This exercise of judgment, which is constantly required in 
estimating characters and in making plant-descriptions, is of 
incalculable advantage to the young. Although the child's 
warrant for his statement is, " I saw it," yet he quickly learns 
that the main thing, after all, is, how the thing seen is to le re- 
garded. He is constantly called upon to make up his mind ; 
he will have frequently to suspend his opinion, and sometimes, 
perhaps, to maintain it against bis teacher. But this is just 
the kind of mental work that he will have to do in after-life, 
in forming his conclusions upon subjects of familiar observation 
and practical experience. 



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Chaptbr 1. On the Method of the Study of the Mind. 

'* 2. The Mind and the Nervous System. 

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AS APPLIED TO THE FUNCTIONS OF THE HUMAN BODY. 

By ^TJSTIlSr iri^IlSTT, Jr., IM:. 33. 

Alimentation; Digestion; Absorption; Lymph and Ohyle^ 
1 volume, 8vo. Cloth. Price, $4.50. 



MECENTJjT TTTBIiISMJEJ), 

THE FIRST VOLUME OF THE SERIES 

BY 

^Tjsxiisr F-XuiisrT, jr.. Ml. r)., 

CONTAINING 

Introduction; The Blood; The Circulation; Eespiration. 
1 volume, 8vo. Cloth. Price, $4.50. 



" Professor Flint is engaged in the preparation of an extended 
work on human physiology, in which he professes to consider all the 
subjects usually regarded as belonging to that department of phys- 
ical science. The work will be divided into separate and distinct 
parts, but the several volumes in which it is to be published will form 
a connected series." — Providence Journal. 

It is free from technicalities and purely professional terms, and 
instead of only being adapted to the use of the medical faculty, 
will be found of interest to the general reader who desires clear 
and concise information on the subject of man physical." — Evening 
Post. 

" Digestion is too little understood, indigestion too extensively 
Bujffered, to render this a work of supererogation. Stomachs will have 
their revenge, sooner or later, if Nature's laws are infringed upon 
through ignorance or stubbornness, and it is well that all should un- 
derstand how the penalty for 'high living' is assessed." — Chicago 
Evening Journal. 

" A year has elapsed since Dr. Fhnt published the first part of 
bis great work upon human physiology. It was an admirable treatise 
— distinct in itself^ — exhausting the special subjects upon which it 
treated." — Philadelphia Inquirer, 



Works of Herbert Spencer ^ubluTied by D, Appleton i& (Jo, 
The JPMlosophy of Herbert Spencer. 



FIRST PRINCIPLES; 

X2V TWO JPAMTS: 

I THE UNKNOWABLE. XL LAWS OF THE KNOWABIJI. 

In one Volume. 618 pages. 



**Mr. Spencer has earned an eminent and commanding position as a metaphysielEJi 
Eiirtliis ability, earnestness, and profundity, are in none of Ms former volnmes so con- 
sjncjnons as in this. There is not a crude thought, a flippant fling, or an irreverent in- 
sinaation in this book, notwithstanding that it has something of the character of a 
daring and determined raid upon the old philosophies," — Chicago Journal. 

" This volume, treating of First Principles, like all Mr. Spencer's writings that have 
fallen under our observation, is distinguished for clearness, earnestness, candor, and 
that originality and fearlessness which ever mark the true philosophical spirit. His 
treatment of theological opinions is reverent and respectful, and his suggestions and 
arguments are such as to deserve, as they will compel, the earnest attention of all 
thoughtful students of first truths. Agreeing with Hamilton and Mansel in the gene- 
ral, on the unknowableness of the unconditioned, he nevertheless holds that their being 
is in a form asserted by consciousness." — Christian Advocate. 

*• The literary world has seen but few such authors as Herbert Spencer. There hava 
been metaphysical writers in the same exalted sphere who before him have attempted 
to reduce the laws of nature to a rational system. But in the highest realm of philo- 
sophical investigation he stands head and shoulders above his predecessors ; not perhaps 
purely by force of superior intellect, but partly owing to the greater aid which the 
light of modern science has afforded him in the prosecution of his difficult task."— 
Boston Bulletin. 

"Mr. Spencer is achieving an enviable distinction by his contributions to the coun- 
try's literature ; his system of philosophy is destined to become a work of no small 
renown. Its appearance at this time is an evidence that our people are not all absorbed 
fn war and its tragic events."— 07i*<? State Journal. 

" Mr. Spencer's works will undoubtedly receive in this country the attention they 
merit. There is a broad liberality of tone throughout which will recommend them to 
dunking, inquiring Americans. Whether, as is asserted, he has established a new sys- 
tem of philosophy, and if so, whether that system is better than all other systems, is 
fet to be decided ; but that his bold and vigorous thought will add something valuable 
iud permanent to human knowledge is undeniable." — Utica Herald. 

** Herbert Spencer is the foremost among living thinkers. If less erudite tbas 
Hamilton, he is quite as original, and is more comprehenswe and catholic than Maw 
Ml.**— JTniversaiistM 



D. APFLETON db CO:S PUBLICATIONS, 

lUBLE TEACHINGS IN NATURE. 

By tlie Rev. HTJG-BC MlaolNOIjIj^lSr 
1 Vol., 12mo. Cloth. Price, $2.00. 



From the JST. Y. Observer. 

" These are truly original and delightful discourses, in 
which invest! orations of natural science are skilfully and often 
eloquently employed to establish divine revelation, and to il- 
lustrate its truths." 

From the Hartford Morning Post. 

" This is a work of rare merit in its way, and may be 
read with great profit and interest by lovers of Nature — by 
those who have the gift of insight^ and who can look up 
* through l!Tature to Nature's God ' and see the ' invisible 
power and Godhead in the things which He has made.' " 

From the Eastern Argus. 

" The healthy mind delights in the beauties and mysteries 
of Nature, and this volume will be found both instructive and 
interesting." 

From the Daily Enquirer, 

" This is a beautifully written work, intended to make the 
studies of the Bible and of Nature doubly attractive, by point- 
ing out the harmony which exists between them as revealed to 
the earnest students of both." 

From the Norfolk County Journal, 

'' The author sees God everywhere revealed in the de- 
velopment of Nature, — finds Him in the works of pure and 
an obtrusive beauty ; in the grand and impressive in scenery, 
aiul in the wonderful manifestations with which the world 
abounds/' 



Wbrki of Herbert Spencer puiJished by D, Appt^ion <Ss (Jo, 



ESSAYS: 

MORAL POLITICAL, AND ESTHETIC. 

In one Voliune. Larg-e 12nio. 





CONTENTS : 


T. 


The Philosophy of Style. 


n. 


Over-Legislation. 


m. 


Morals of Trade. 


IV. 


Personal Beauty. 


Y. 


Representative Government. 


VI. 


Prison-Ethics. 


VII. 


Railway Morals and Railway Policy. 


VIII. 


Gracefulness. 


IX. 


State Tamperings with Money and Banks. 


X. 


Reform ; the Dangers and the Safeguards, 



ALSO, 

SOCIAL STATICS; 

OR, 

THE COlSTDITIOlSrS ESSENTIAL TO HUMAN HAPPINESS 

SPECIFIED, AND THE FIRST OF THEM 

DEVELOPED. 

In one Volnme. Larg-e 12nio. 

All these works are rich in materials for forming intelligent opinions, even where 
we are unable to agree with those put forth by the author. Much may be learned from 
them In departments in which our common Educational system is very deficient. The 
active citizen may derive from them accurate systematized information concerning his 
highest duties to society, and the principles on which they are based. He may gain 
•learer notions of the value and bearing of evidence, and be better able to distinguish 
Mfctween facts and inferences. He may find common things suggestive of wiser thought 
-nay, we will venture to say of truer emotion — than before. By giving us fuller reali- 
tatlons of liberty and justice his writings will tend to increase our self-reliance in th« 
ereat emergency ctf civilization to which we have been summoned. — Atlantic Monthly 



W(yrks published by D, Ajpjpkton db Co* 



HEAT, 

CONSIDERED AS A MODE OF MOTION, 

Being a Course of Twelve Lectures delivered before the 
Royal Institution of Great Britain. 

BY JOHN TTNDALL, F. R. S., 

PROhKSSOB or NATTTRAL PHIL080PHT IN THE ROYAL INSTITUTION'— AtTTHOB OTf «U/ 
'^OLAOIEBS OP THE ALPS," ETC. 

With One Hundred Illustrations. 8vo, 480 pages. Price, $2.50. 



From the American Journal of Science. — ^With all the skill which has 
made Faraday the master of experimental science in Great Britain, Professor Tyndall 
enjoys the advantage of a superior general culture, and is thus enabled to set forth hia 
philosophy with all the graces of eloquence and the finish of superior diction. With a 
simplicity, and absence of technicalities, which render his explanations lucid to un- 
scientific minds, and at the same time a thoroughness and originality by which he in- 
structs the most learned, he unfolds all the modem philosophy of heat. His work takes 
rank at once as a classic upon the subject. 

New York Times.— Professor Tyndairs course of lectures on heat is one of the 
most beautiful illustrations of a mode of handling scientific subjects, which is com- 
paratively new, and which promises the best results, both to science and to literature 
generally ; we mean the treatment of subjects in a style at once profound and popu' 
lar. The title of Professor Tyndall's work indicates the theory of heat held by him, 
and indeed the only one now held by scientific men — it is a mode of motion, 

Boston Journal. — He exhibits the curious and beautiful workings of nature in 
ft most delightful manner. Before the reader particles of water lock themselves or fly 
asunder with a movement regulated like a dance. They form themselves into liquid 
tlowers with fine serrated petals, or into rosettes of frozen gauze ; they bound upward 
In boiling fountains, or creep slowly onward in stupendous glaciers. Flames burst into 
music and sing, or cease to sing, as the experimenter pleases, and metals paint them- 
selves upon a screen in dazzling hues as the painter touches his canvas. 

New York Tribune. — The most original and important contribution that has 
yet been made to the theocy and literature of thermotics. 

Scientific American.— The work is written in a charming style, and is the 
most valuable contribution to scientific literature that biS been published in many 
years. It is the most popular exposition of the dynamical theory of heat that has yet 
Rppeared. The old material theory of heat may be said to be defunct. 

Liouisville Democrat.— This is one of the most delightful scientific works we 
Jb-i7e ever met. The lectures are so full of life and spirit that we can almost imagine 
t'le lecturer before us, and see his brilliant experiments in every stage of their progress. 
^i he theory is so carefully and thoroughly explained that no one can fail to understand 
it. Such books as these create a love for science. 

Independent.— Professor Tyndall's expositions and experiments are remarkably 
thoughtful, ingenious, clear, and convincing ; portions of the book have almost tha 
tiif.crest of a romance, so startlins: are the descriotions and elucidations. 



D, Appleton <Sb Co.^ New York, have now ready, 

A NEW 

CLASS-BOOK OF CHEMISTRY, 

IN WHICH 

THE LATEST FACTS AND PRINCIPLES OF THE SCIENCE ARE 

EXPLAINED AND APPLIED TO THE ARTS OF LIFE 

AND THE PHENOMENA OF NATURE. 

A NEW EDITION, 

ENTIEELY REWRITTEN AND MUCH ENLARGED. 

WITH 



^rree Punbteb mh Cm ®ngrairings. 



^' 



By EDWARD L. YOUMANS, M.D. 



ft» 



12mo. 460 pages. 

The special attention of Educators is solicited to this work, on the fol- 
lowing grounds : 

I. It brings up the science to the present date, incorporating the new discov- 
eries, the corrected views and more comprehensive principles which have resulted 
from recent inquiry. Among these may be mentioned the discoveries in Spectrum 
Analysis^ the doctrines of the Conse7•'^;G/^on and Correlation of Forces, the researches 
of Berthelot on the Artificial Production of Organic Substances, the interesting re- 
searches of Graham on the Crystalloid and Colloid condition of matter, with nmny 
other results of recent investigation not found in contemporary text- books. 

II. Avoiding excess of technicalities, it presents the subject in a lucid, forcible, 
ixnd attractive style. 

III. It is profusely illustrated with cuts of objects, apxiaratus, and experiments, 
which enable the student to pursue the subject alone or in schools without ap- 
paratus. 

IV. Directions for experimental operations are much condensed, and descrip- 
tions of unimportant chemical substances are made very brief, or altogether omit- 
ted, thus obtaining space to treat with unusual fulness the "chemistry of common 
life," and the later revelations of this beautiful science. 

V. It presents just such a view of the leading principles and more important 
facts of the science as is demanded for the purposes of general education. 

VI. The work is arranged upon a natural method, the topics being so presented 
as to unfold the true order of Nature's activities. Part 1 treats of the natural 
forces by w^hich matter is transformed. Part II, of the application of these forces 
to the lower or mineral world. Part III, of the organic kingdom, which rises out 
of the preceding ; while Part IV, or Physiological Chemistry, completes the scheme 
in the world of life. 

VII. It presents the science not only as a branch but as a weans of education— 
a valuable instrument of intellectual culture and discipline. 

VIII. It gives a clear exposition of the origin and nature of scientiiic knowl- 
edge and the value of scientific studies for purposes of education. 

gW A Specimen Copy for examination will be sent, post paid, on 
receipt of &2 cents. ? 

„6a ^ H^ 



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